dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

provided by AnAge articles
Maximum longevity: 13 years (wild) Observations: Mortality in wild populations of 50% per year is common. Generally do not live over 5 years in the wild (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/), though record longevity in the wild is 13 years (http://www.demogr.mpg.de/longevityrecords).
license
cc-by-3.0
copyright
Joao Pedro de Magalhaes
editor
de Magalhaes, J. P.
partner site
AnAge articles

Trophic Strategy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys are omnivorous. They primarily eat vegetable matter such as acorns, nuts, seeds, buds, leaves and fern fronds. They also eat ground-dwelling insects and salamanders, which account for about 10% of their diet. Wild turkeys forage primarily on the ground, though they occasionally mount shrubs and low trees to reach fruits and buds. Most foraging occurs during the 2 to 3 hours after dawn and before dusk.

Animal Foods: amphibians; insects

Plant Foods: leaves; roots and tubers; seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Primary Diet: omnivore

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys provide food for their predators and impact populations of the plants whose seeds and nuts they eat.

Wild turkeys also host at least 60 different species of parasites. These include 9 protozoans, 11 trematodes, 10 cestodes, 1 acanthocephalan, 17 nematodes and 12 arthropods.

Commensal/Parasitic Species:

  • protozoans
  • trematodes
  • cestodes
  • acanthocephalan
  • nematodes
  • arthropods
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys are one of the most popular game bird species in the United States. Turkey hunting brings millions of dollars to states' Departments of Natural Resources, as well as to public and private organizations each year. Conservation efforts may benefit from turkey hunting through habitat improvement projects. Numerous organizations work to keep wild turkeys plentiful throughout the country.

Positive Impacts: food

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

There are no known adverse effects of wild turkeys on humans.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Conservation Status

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys are plentiful and are widespread. Many states are starting to introduce them into previously uninhabited areas, increasing their range and distribution. Current estimates of wild turkey populations are around 4 million in North America (Dickson, 1995).

Wild turkeys are not legally protected. In fact, they are hunted in many states.

US Migratory Bird Act: no special status

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Behavior

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys use vocalizations and physical displays to communicate. For example, during the spring, males will fan out their tails, strut and "gobble" in an attempt to attract and retain a harem of females. Biologists recognize at least 15 different wild turkey vocalizations, including the widely recognized "gobble". The "gobble" is give primarily by males with the purpose of attracting females and repelling competing males. Other vocalizations are used by both sexes to communicate a variety of messages.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

Perception Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Distribution

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) are one of the most widely distributed game bird species in North America. They are found throughout most of the eastern United States, and in pockets throughout the western United States. They are also found in parts of northern Mexico, particularly in the Sierra Nevada mountains. Wild turkeys have been introduced to Germany and New Zealand.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Introduced ); australian (Introduced )

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Habitat

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys prefer hardwood and mixed conifer-hardwood forests with scattered openings such as pastures, fields, orchards and seasonal marshes.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: forest

Wetlands: marsh

Other Habitat Features: agricultural ; riparian

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Life Expectancy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The average life expectancy for wild turkeys is estimated at 1.3 to 1.6 years. The oldest known wild turkey lived at least 13 years.

Range lifespan
Status: wild:
13 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild:
1.3 to 1.6 years.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Morphology

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys are large, ground-dwelling birds with long legs, long necks and large fan-shaped tails. They have short, rounded wings. Male wild turkeys have dark, iridescent plumage. Their flight feathers are black with brown stripes and are barred with white. They have a red wattle (a fleshy lobe that hangs down from the chin or throat), a caruncle (a wart-like projection of skin attached to the upper part of the forehead), and a blackish breast tuft. Their pink, pinkish-gray, or silver-gray legs have spurs which can grow as long as 3.2 cm. The heads of adult males (called gobblers) are red, blue, or white depending on the season.

Female wild turkeys (called hens) are smaller and duller than males. Most females do not have a breast tuft. Females have a grayish head and a feathered neck.

Male turkeys weigh 6.8 to 11 kg. Hens usually weigh 3.6 to 5.4 kg. Weight varies considerably with time of year and resource availability.

There are six subspecies of Meleagris gallopavo. These subspecies differ in size, plumage and distribution.

Range mass: 3.6 to 11 kg.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; sexes colored or patterned differently; male more colorful; ornamentation

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Associations

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Predators of wild turkey eggs and nestlings include raccoons, opossums, striped skunks, grey foxes, birds, woodchucks, rodents, spotted skunks, bobcats, rat snakes and bull snakes.

Humans are the primary predator of adult wild turkeys. Other predators include coyotes, bobcats, raccoons, mountain lions, golden eagles, and great horned owls.

Known Predators:

  • raccoons
  • opossums
  • striped skunks
  • grey foxes
  • birds
  • woodchucks
  • rodents
  • spotted skunks
  • bobcats
  • rat snakes
  • bull snakes
  • coyotes
  • mountain lions
  • golden eagles
  • great horned owls
  • humans
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Wild turkeys are polygynous. Males attempt to attract females by "gobbling" and "strutting" with their tail fanned out, their wings lowered and dragging on the ground, their back feathers erect, their head thrown back and their crop inflated. The gobbles of male wild turkeys can be heard more than 1.5 kilometers away (or approximately 1 mile).

Mating System: polygynous

Wild turkeys breed in early spring; southern populations begin courtship in late January and northern populations begin in late February. They raise one brood per season. The nest is a shallow depression in the ground, usually surrounded by dense brush, vines, tangles, deep grass, or fallen tree tops. The female scratches out the nest and lays 4 to 17 (usually 8 to 15) eggs. She incubates the eggs for 25 to 31 days. The chicks are precocial, and are able walk and feed themselves within 24 hours of hatching. The female broods the chicks at night for the first 2 weeks after hatching. She also defends them from predators, sometimes pursuing hawks or other predators. The young turkeys (called poults) stay with the female parent through the fall (males) or the early spring (females). Turkeys are capable of breeding at about 10 months old, though young males are typically not successful in competing with older males for mates during their first spring.

Egg dumping (laying eggs in another female's nest) is common in this species. This species is also known to lay eggs in the nests of ruffed grouse. Ring-necked pheasants are known nest parasites of wild turkeys.

Breeding interval: Wild turkeys breed once per year.

Breeding season: Courtship begins in early spring (January to February).

Range eggs per season: 4 to 17.

Range time to hatching: 25 to 31 days.

Range fledging age: 24 (high) hours.

Range time to independence: 4 to 10 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 10 months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 10 months.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; oviparous

Average eggs per season: 11.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
365 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
365 days.

Male wild turkeys do not provide any parental care. Female wild turkeys prepare the nest, incubate the eggs, and care for the young until the next spring (fall for male poults). The chicks are precocial, and are able to walk and feed themselves within 24 hours of hatching.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Female)

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
McCullough, J. 2001. "Meleagris gallopavo" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Meleagris_gallopavo.html
author
Jason McCullough, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
editor
Kari Kirschbaum, Animal Diversity Web
author
Alaine Camfield, Animal Diversity Web
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Meleagris gallopavo

provided by DC Birds Brief Summaries

An extremely large (36-48 inches) game bird, the Wild Turkey is most easily identified by its large size, bald bluish head, and iridescent black or brown body feathers. Male Wild Turkeys have large fan-like tails and red wattles on the neck, whereas females are much smaller and plainer. This species is nearly unmistakable among North America birds, although certain varieties of Domestic Turkey resemble their wild ancestors. The Wild Turkey is native to much of the eastern United States, southern Canada, and Mexico. However, its range has been in constant flux over the past 500 years as populations have locally been hunted to extinction or, conversely, introduced into new areas for sport shooting. Due to both factors, Wild Turkeys are absent from portions of the Atlantic Seaboard and upper Midwest but may be found locally in parts of the western U.S. where they did not occur before Europeans arrived in the New World. The Wild Turkey is the only native North American bird to be domesticated, and Domestic Turkeys are farmed around the world. Wild Turkeys inhabit a wide array of habitats, including deciduous woodland, dry scrub, and grassland. While this species is rarely found in urban or suburban areas, Wild Turkeys will visit agricultural fields and pastures. In fact, the ancestors of the Domestic Turkey likely became associated with humans through visiting maize fields in Mexico. This species primarily eats seeds, nuts, leaves, and insects. In forests, clearings, and more open habitats, it may be possible to observe Wild Turkeys standing or walking, singly or in small groups, while foraging for food. The male’s call, a series of “gobble” sounds, is familiar and identifying. Wild Turkeys are primarily active during the day.

Threat Status: Least Concern

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Smithsonian Institution
author
Reid Rumelt

Meleagris gallopavo

provided by EOL authors

An extremely large (36-48 inches) game bird, the Wild Turkey is most easily identified by its large size, bald bluish head, and iridescent black or brown body feathers. Male Wild Turkeys have large fan-like tails and red wattles on the neck, whereas females are much smaller and plainer. This species is nearly unmistakable among North America birds, although certain varieties of Domestic Turkey resemble their wild ancestors. The Wild Turkey is native to much of the eastern United States, southern Canada, and Mexico. However, its range has been in constant flux over the past 500 years as populations have locally been hunted to extinction or, conversely, introduced into new areas for sport shooting. Due to both factors, Wild Turkeys are absent from portions of the Atlantic Seaboard and upper Midwest but may be found locally in parts of the western U.S. where they did not occur before Europeans arrived in the New World. The Wild Turkey is the only native North American bird to be domesticated, and Domestic Turkeys are farmed around the world. Wild Turkeys inhabit a wide array of habitats, including deciduous woodland, dry scrub, and grassland. While this species is rarely found in urban or suburban areas, Wild Turkeys will visit agricultural fields and pastures. In fact, the ancestors of the Domestic Turkey likely became associated with humans through visiting maize fields in Mexico. This species primarily eats seeds, nuts, leaves, and insects. In forests, clearings, and more open habitats, it may be possible to observe Wild Turkeys standing or walking, singly or in small groups, while foraging for food. The male’s call, a series of “gobble” sounds, is familiar and identifying. Wild Turkeys are primarily active during the day.

References

  • Eaton, Stephen W. 1992. Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America Online: http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/022
  • Meleagris gallopavo. Xeno-canto. Xeno-canto Foundation, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo). The Internet Bird Collection. Lynx Edicions, n.d. Web. 20 July 2012.
  • eBird Range Map - Wild Turkey. eBird. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, N.d. Web. 20 July 2012.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-4.0
copyright
Smithsonian Institution
bibliographic citation
Rumelt, Reid B. Meleagris gallopavo. June-July 2012. Brief natural history summary of Meleagris gallopavo. Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C.
author
Robert Costello (kearins)
original
visit source
partner site
EOL authors

Associated Plant Communities

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: hardwood

Wild turkeys predominantly inhabit oak (Quercus spp.) and pine (Pinus
spp.)-oak forests across North America [18,21]. They also frequent
bottomland hardwood sites such as those dominated by cottonwood and
aspen (Populus spp.). In the West wild turkeys use ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa)-Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)-oak forests and
mature mixed conifer forests [6]. In the Southwest they use pinyon
(Pinus spp.)-juniper (Juniperus spp.) types mixed with oak [23]. In the
Southeast wild turkeys inhabit loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), slash pine
(P. elliottii), and pond pine (P. serotina) forests mixed with
hardwoods. They also use baldcypress (Taxodium distichum)-water tupelo
(Nyssa aquatica) types [24].


REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
wild turkey
turkey
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Cover Requirements

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, forb

Wild turkeys need mature, open forests (for traveling and seeing
predators) interspersed with grassy openings. The amount of openings
required by wild turkeys varies from 10 to 25 percent of the total
range. Clearings should be spaced so that hens with broods do not have
to travel more than 1 to 2 miles (1.6-3.2 km) [22]. Areas considered
unsuitable include large tracts of even-aged pine on short rotations,
intensely farmed fields, and areas with a lot of human activity. Healy
(in Shroeder [22]) estimated that the best cover for poults in the
Southeast is a grass and forb mixture 15.7 to 27.6 inches (40-70 cm)
tall and with a biomass of 600 to 3,000 kilograms per hectare dry
weight. This should be mixed with trees and a 60 to 100 percent cover
in the understory. For more detailed habitat suitability index models,
see Schroeder [22].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The wild turkey has been successfully introduced in most states outside
of its native range and has also been introduced in southern
Saskatchewan, southwestern Manitoba, and southern Ontario [1,8]. It is
resident locally from central Arizona and central Colorado to northern
Iowa, central Michigan, southern New Hampshire, and southwestern Maine
south to southern Texas, the Gulf Coast, and Florida; and since being
introduced into the western states, ranges throughout the continental
United States and Hawaii [8,18]. The original ranges of subspecies of
wild turkey in North America are listed below [18]:

M. g. ssp. silvestris - most of the eastern and midwestern United States,
from southern Ontario south through northern
Florida and from the Atlantic Coast to Kansas
and Nebraska
M. g. ssp. osceola - Florida Peninsula
M. g. ssp. mexicana - north-central Mexico
M. g. ssp. merriami - Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Colorado
M. g. ssp. intermedia - Texas, northern Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas
M. g. ssp. gallopavo - east-central Mexico
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Food Habits

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: mast

Wild turkeys eat fruits, seeds, tubers, bulbs, and greens of locally
common plants. They also eat animals such as snails, spiders,
grasshoppers, millipedes, and salamanders [22]. Grasses are usually
important spring foods, while mast and fruits are important during the
fall and winter. Poults rely on insects for protein. Some plant food
species of the wild turkey include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida),
wild cherry (Prunus serotina), black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), hackberry
(Celtis occidentalis), hickory (Carya spp.), hawthorn (Crateagus spp.),
oak, cottonwood and aspen (Populus spp.), pinyon, juniper, prickly pear
(Opuntia spp.), sumac (Rhus spp.), wheat (Triticum aestivum), alfalfa
(Medicago sativa), rye (Secale cereale), soybean (Glycine max), paspalum
(Paspalum spp.), and panic grass (Panicum spp.) [18,22,23]. Wild
turkeys must be near drinking water on a daily basis [26].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat-related Fire Effects

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: fern, mast, seed

Annual prescribed burns in longleaf-wiregrass (Aristida spp.)-bracken
fern (Pteridium aquilegia) types of Georgia stimulated the growth of
important wild turkey food plants like legumes and panic grass [4].
Following prescribed fires in the Georgia Piedmont, total seed
production of desirable food plants increased during postburn year 1
from 6.4 kilograms per hectare to 26.4 kilograms per hectare [7].
Spring, late summer, and winter fires in Texas slash pine plantations
seriously reduced mast production but increased fruiting of flowering
dogwood [19]. Loblolly pine stands in South Carolina were burned to
determine the effects of fire on wild turkeys [8]. One plot, burned
every winter for 20 years showed an increase in desired food plants like
winged sumac (Rhus copallina), beggartick (Desmodium spp.), and
partridge pea (Cassia nictitans). An adjacent plot burned every summer
for 20 years and one unburned plot showed little to no value for
wildlife.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Cover Types

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the terms: hardwood, swamp

24 Hemlock - yellow birch
25 Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
28 Black cherry - maple
39 Black ash - American elm - red maple
40 Post oak - blackjack oak
42 Bur oak
43 Bear oak
44 Chestnut oak
52 White oak - black oak - northern red oak
53 White oak
55 Northern red oak
60 Beech - sugar maple
63 Cottonwood
70 Longleaf pine
71 Longleaf pine - scrub oak
76 Shortleaf pine - oak
78 Virginia pine - oak
81 Loblolly pine
82 Loblolly pine - hardwood
84 Slash pine
85 Slash pine - hardwood
89 Live oak
98 Pond pine
102 Baldcypress - tupelo
103 Water tupelo - swamp tupelo
105 Tropical hardwoods
109 Hawthorn
210 Interior Douglas-fir
217 Aspen
220 Rocky Mountain juniper
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Ecosystem

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
dFRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Habitat: Plant Associations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the terms: forest, shrub, woodland

K005 Mixed conifer forest
K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
K011 Western ponderosa forest
K012 Douglas-fir forest
K016 Eastern ponderosa forest
K017 Black Hills pine forest
K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
K019 Arizona pine forest
K022 Great Basin pine forest
K023 Juniper - pinyon woodland
K024 Juniper steppe woodland
K026 Oregon oakwoods
K029 California mixed evergreen forest
K030 California oakwoods
K031 Oak - juniper woodlands
K032 Transition between K031 and K037
K037 Mountain-mahogany - oak scrub
K051 Wheatgrass - bluegrass
K059 Trans-Pecos shrub savanna
K061 Mesquite - acacia savanna
K062 Mesquite - live oak savanna
K066 Wheatgrass - needlegrass
K067 Wheatgrass - bluestem - needlegrass
K079 Palmetto prairie
K080 Marl - Everglades
K081 Oak savanna
K083 Cedar glades
K084 Cross Timbers
K086 Juniper - oak savanna
K087 Mesquite - oak savanna
K090 Live oak - sea oats
K091 Cypress savanna
K092 Everglades
K098 Northern floodplain forest
K099 Maple - basswood forest
K100 Oak - hickory forest
K101 Elm - ash forest
K102 Beech - maple forest
K103 Mixed mesophytic forest
K104 Appalachian oak forest
K106 Northern hardwoods
K109 Transition between K104 and K106
K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
K112 Southern mixed forest
K113 Southern floodplain forest
K115 Sand pine scrub
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Management Considerations

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, forest

The wild turkey is a popular game species that has been introduced to
almost every state outside the limits of its original range [21].
However, it is not very tolerant of human activity and has suffered from
urbanization as well as intense farming and conversion of native forest
land to pine plantations [11,22]. Wild turkeys are susceptible to
domestic poultry diseases [26]. Pesticide spraying to reduce vegetation
may temporarily result in decreased turkey use of an area [2].

Wild turkey populations declined following cutting, burning, and
chaining of pinyon-juniper types in Arizona [23]. Partially cut units
showed only a temporary reduction in turkey use. Where one-third of a
large tract (800 ha) was treated, use decreased from 32 percent to 3
percent during summer. These authors recommended that cleared areas be
less than 300 feet (90 m) wide and that cover in travel corridors
between feeding and roosting areas be maintained.


REFERENCES :
NO-ENTRY
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Occurrence in North America

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals

AL
AK
AZ
AR
CA
CO
CT
DE
FL
GA

HI
ID
IL
IN
IA
KS
KY
LA
ME
MD

MA
MI
MN
MS
MO
MT
NE
NV
NH
NJ

NM
NY
NC
ND
OH
OK
OR
PA
RI
SC

SD
TN
TX
UT
VT
VA
WA
WV
WI
WY





MB
ON
SK





MEXICO


license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Predators

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
Predators of the turkey include humans, coyote (Canis latrans), skunks,
weasels, mink (Mustelidae), raccoon (Procyon lotor), opossum (Didephis
virginiana), feral dog (Canis commonis), bobcat (Felis rufus), foxes
(Vulpes spp., Urocyon spp.), squirrels, chipmunks (Sciuridae), hawks
(Buteo spp., Accipiter spp.), raven, crow, magpie (Corvidae), and
various snake species [18,21,22].
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Preferred Habitat

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the terms: cover, hardwood, herbaceous

The wild turkey occurs in a variety of habitats from bottomland hardwood
forests to upland woods and pine forests. These forests must be
interspersed with pastures, grasslands, or agricultural land and other
openings that can provide feeding, dusting, and brooding habitat [22].
In Oregon, wild turkeys prefer to roost in large ponderosa pines on
easterly slopes. They also may roost in logging slash on north slopes
between 2,000 and 3,000 feet (610-914 m). In this same part of Oregon,
wild turkeys prefer ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir-oak stands in spring and
summer, mixed conifer stands in spring and winter, and oak stands in
winter [6]. Eastern Texas brooding hens selected low stocked stands
with abundant herbaceous cover [5]. In the Black Hills of South Dakota
wild turkeys nest in slash and on rock outcrops [20]. In Arizona they
will roost in valleys and in ponderosa pines on northerly slopes [23].
In Massachusetts, wild turkeys select agricultural land during winter,
where they have a better chance of surviving severe winters than if they
remained in the forests [27]. In the fields, wild turkeys can feed on
manure.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

3 Southern Pacific Border
4 Sierra Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
6 Upper Basin and Range
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Taxonomy

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
The currently accepted scientific name for wild turkey is Meleagris
gallopavo Linnaeus [1]. The six subspecies are distinguished by
coloration, size, and distribution [1,18]:

Meleagris gallopavo ssp. silvestris Vieillot (eastern wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. osceola Scott (Florida wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. mexicana (Gould's wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. merriami Nelson (Merriam's wild turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. intermedia Sennett (Rio Grande turkey)
M. gallopavo ssp. gallopavo (Mexican wild turkey)
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Timing of Major Life History Events

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: polygamous

Mating Season - February through April
Incubation - 28 days; 10 to 13 eggs; preccocial young
Age of Maturity - 1 year, but may not mate until 2 to 3 years of age;
polygamous
Longevity - can live to 10 or 12 years, but 5 years is considered "old";
annual mortality of 50% in a population is common
[13,18,21,26]
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Use of Fire in Population Management

provided by Fire Effects Information System Animals
More info for the term: litter

Prescribed fire can be used to stimulate the growth of food plants and
promote early spring green up of grasses [22]. Fire can also reduce
litter, exposing seeds and insects; and reduce brush so that turkeys can
be wary of predators [14,15,25]. Fire can be used to create edges to
increase nesting habitat [25]. It can also reduce parasites such as
ticks and lice [16]. Devet and Hopkins [8] recommended burning
loblolly-longleaf pine stands every 3 years, and burning every 4 to 6
years in Piedmont regions. For burning recommendations of
mast-producing oak species see the desired species in the FEIS database.
license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
Snyder, S. A. 1992. Meleagris gallopavo. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/

Wild turkey

provided by wikipedia EN

The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is an upland game bird native to North America, one of two extant species of turkey and the heaviest member of the order Galliformes. It is the ancestor to the domestic turkey, which was originally derived from a southern Mexican subspecies of wild turkey (not the related ocellated turkey).

Description

Close-up of head features

Adult wild turkeys have long reddish-yellow to grayish-green legs. The body feathers are generally blackish and dark, sometimes gray brown overall with a coppery sheen that becomes more complex in adult males. Adult males, called toms or gobblers, have a large, featherless, reddish head, red throat, and red wattles on the throat and neck. The head has fleshy growths called caruncles. Juvenile males are called jakes; the difference between an adult male and a juvenile is that the jake has a very short beard and his tail fan has longer feathers in the middle. The adult male's tail fan feathers will be all the same length.[2] When males are excited, a fleshy flap on the bill (called a snood) expands, and this, the wattles and the bare skin of the head and neck all become engorged with blood. Each foot has three toes in front, with a shorter, rear-facing toe in back; males have a spur behind each of their lower legs.[3]

Closeup of wild turkey tom

Male turkeys have a long, dark, fan-shaped tail and glossy bronze wings. As with many other species of the Galliformes, turkeys exhibit strong sexual dimorphism. The male is substantially larger than the female, and his feathers have areas of red, purple, green, copper, bronze, and gold iridescence. The preen gland (uropygial gland) is also larger in male turkeys compared to female ones. In contrast to the majority of other birds, they are colonized by bacteria of unknown function (Corynebacterium uropygiale).[4] Females, called hens, have feathers that are duller overall, in shades of brown and gray. Parasites can dull coloration of both sexes; in males, coloration may serve as a signal of health.[5] The primary wing feathers have white bars. Turkeys have 5000 to 6000 feathers.[6]

Tail feathers are of the same length in adults, different lengths in juveniles. Males typically have at least one "beard", a tuft of coarse hair-like filaments (mesofiloplumes), growing from the center of the breast.[7] Beards grow continuously during the turkey's lifespan[8] and a one-year-old male has a beard up to 5 in (13 cm) long.[7] Approximately 10% of females have a beard, usually shorter and thinner than that of the male.[7][8]

The adult male (or "tom") normally weighs from 5 to 11 kg (11 to 24 lb) and measures 100–125 cm (39–49 in) in length. The adult female (or "hen") is typically much smaller at 2.5–5.4 kg (5.5–11.9 lb) and is 76 to 95 cm (30 to 37 in) long.[9][10] Per two large studies, the average weight of adult males is 7.6 kg (17 lb) and the average weight of adult females is 4.26 kg (9.4 lb).[11][12] The wings are relatively small, as is typical of the galliform order, and the wingspan ranges from 1.25 to 1.44 m (4 ft 1 in to 4 ft 9 in). The wing chord is only 20 to 21.4 cm (7.9 to 8.4 in). The bill is also relatively small, as adults measure 2 to 3.2 cm (0.79 to 1.26 in) in culmen length.[13] The tarsus of the wild turkey is quite long and sturdy, measuring from 9.7 to 19.1 cm (3.8 to 7.5 in). The tail is also relatively long, ranging from 24.5 to 50.5 cm (9.6 to 19.9 in).[14]

The record-sized adult male wild turkey, according to the National Wild Turkey Federation, weighed 16.85 kg (37.1 lb), with records of tom turkeys weighing over 13.8 kg (30 lb) uncommon but not rare.[15] While it is usually rather lighter than the waterfowl, after the trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator), the turkey has the second heaviest maximum weight of any North American bird. Going on average mass, several other birds on the continent, including the American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), the tundra swan (Cygnus columbianus columbianus) and the very rare California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) and whooping crane (Grus americana) surpass the mean weight of turkeys.[16][11]

Habitat

Eastern subspecies

Wild turkeys prefer hardwood and mixed conifer-hardwood forests with scattered openings such as pastures, fields, orchards and seasonal marshes. They seemingly can adapt to virtually any dense native plant community as long as coverage and openings are widely available. Open, mature forest with a variety of interspersion of tree species appear to be preferred. In the Northeast of North America, turkeys are most profuse in hardwood timber of oak-hickory (Quercus-Carya) and forests of red oak (Quercus rubra), beech (Fagus grandifolia), cherry (Prunus serotina) and white ash (Fraxinus americana). Best ranges for turkeys in the Coastal Plain and Piedmont sections have an interspersion of clearings, farms, and plantations with preferred habitat along principal rivers and in cypress (Taxodium distichum) and tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) swamps.

In Appalachian and Cumberland plateaus, birds occupy mixed forest of oaks and pines on southern and western slopes, also hickory with diverse understories. Bald cypress and sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) swamps of s. Florida; also hardwood of Cliftonia (a heath) and oak in north-central Florida. Lykes Fisheating Creek area of s. Florida has up to 51% cypress, 12% hardwood hammocks, 17% glades of short grasses with isolated live oak (Quercus virginiana); nesting in neighboring prairies. Original habitat here was mainly longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) with turkey oak (Quercus laevis) and slash pine (Pinus caribaea) "flatwoods," now mainly replaced by slash pine plantations.

Behavior

Flight

Wild turkey agile in flight
Wild turkey, fast flier

Despite their weight, wild turkeys, unlike their domesticated counterparts, are agile, fast fliers. In ideal habitat of open woodland or wooded grasslands,[17] they may fly beneath the canopy top and find perches. They usually fly close to the ground for no more than 400 m (a quarter mile).[18]

Wild turkeys have very good eyesight, but their vision is very poor at night. They will generally not see a predator until it is too late. At twilight most turkeys will head for the trees and roost well off the ground: it is safer to sleep there in numbers than to risk being victim to predators who hunt by night. Because wild turkeys don't migrate, in snowier parts of the species's habitat like the Northeast, Rockies, much of Canada, and the Midwest, it is very important for this bird to learn to select large conifer trees where they can fly onto the branches and shelter from blizzards.[19]

Vocalizations

Wild turkeys have many calls: gobbles, plain yelp, cluck & purr, clucks, cutting, excited hen, fly down, tree yelp, old hen, kee kee, putts. In early spring, males older than a year old (called gobblers or toms) and, occasionally to a lesser extent, males younger than a year old (called "jakes") gobble to announce their presence to females and competing males. The gobble of a wild turkey can be heard up to a mile away. Males also emit a low-pitched "drumming" sound, produced by the movement of air in the air sac in the chest, similar to the booming of a prairie chicken. In addition they produce a sound known as the "spit" which is a sharp expulsion of air from this air sac.

Foraging

Hen with poults

Wild turkeys are omnivorous, foraging on the ground or climbing shrubs and small trees to feed. They prefer eating acorns, nuts and other hard mast of various trees, including hazel, chestnut, hickory, and pinyon pine as well as various seeds, berries such as juniper and bearberry, buds, leaves, fern fronds,[20] roots and insects. Turkeys also occasionally consume amphibians such as salamanders[20] and small reptiles such as lizards and small snakes. Poults have been observed eating insects, berries, and seeds. Wild turkeys often feed in cow pastures, sometimes visit backyard bird feeders, and favor croplands after harvest to scavenge seeds on the ground. Turkeys are also known to eat a wide variety of grasses.

Wild Turkeys Foraging in the Appalachian Foothills of Pennsylvania

Turkey populations can reach large numbers in small areas because of their ability to forage for different types of food. Early morning and late afternoon are the desired times for eating.

Social structure and mating

Nest found in Nelson County, Virginia

Males are polygamous, mating with as many hens as they can. Male wild turkeys display for females by puffing out their feathers, spreading out their tails and dragging their wings. This behavior is most commonly referred to as strutting. Their heads and necks are colored brilliantly with red, white, and blue. The color can change with the turkey's mood, with a solid white head and neck being the most excited. They use gobbling, drumming/booming and spitting as signs of social dominance, and to attract females. Courtship begins during the months of March and April, which is when turkeys are still flocked together in winter areas.

Males may be seen courting in groups, often with the dominant male gobbling, spreading his tail feathers (strutting), drumming/booming and spitting. In a study, the average dominant male that courted as part of a pair of males fathered six more eggs than males that courted alone. Genetic analysis of pairs of males courting together shows that they are close relatives, with half of their genetic material being identical. The theory behind the team-courtship is that the less dominant male would have a greater chance of passing along shared genetic material than if it were courting alone.[21]

When mating is finished, females search for nest sites. Nests are shallow dirt depressions engulfed with woody vegetation. Hens lay a clutch of 10–14 eggs, usually one per day. The eggs are incubated for at least 28 days. The poults are precocial and nidifugous, leaving the nest in about 12–24 hours. Turkeys are a ground nesting bird, because of this they are heavily predated on. Reproductivley active wild turkeys have a lower annual survival rate due to predation on the nest.[22]

Positive relationships with other wild species

Turkey are known to occasionally forage with deer and squirrels, and may even play with them.[23] By foraging together, each can help the other watch for predators with their different senses: the deer with their improved olfactory sense, the turkey with its superior sight, and squirrels providing an additional set of eyes from the air.[24]

Predators

Predators of eggs and nestlings include raccoons (Procyon lotor), Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana), striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis), gray foxes (Urocyon citnereoargenteus), groundhogs (Marmota monax), other rodents and spotted skunks (Spilogale ssp.).[25][26][27][28] Predators of poults in addition to nestlings and eggs also include several species of snake, namely rat snakes (Elaphe ssp.), gopher snakes (Pituophis catenifer) and pinesnakes (Pituophis ssp.).

Avian predators of poults include raptors such as bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), barred owl (Strix varia), red-shouldered (Buteo lineatus), red-tailed (Buteo jamaicensis), white-tailed (Geranoaetus albicaudatus), and Harris's hawks (Parabuteo unicinctus)—and the smallish Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii) and broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus) (both likely of very small poults).[29][30][31][32][33][34] Mortality of poults is greatest in the first 14 days of life, especially of those roosting on the ground, decreasing most notably after half a year, when they attain near adult sizes.[35]

Hen with juveniles

In addition to poults, hens and adult-sized fledglings (but not, as far as is known, adult male toms) are vulnerable to predation by great horned owls (Bubo virginianus),[36] northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis),[37] domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), domestic cats (Felis catus), and red foxes (Vulpes vulpes).[38] Predators of both adults and poults include coyotes (Canis latrans),[39] gray wolves (Canis lupus),[40] bobcats (Lynx rufus),[41] cougars (Puma concolor),[42] Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos),[43] and possibly American black bears (Ursus americanus), which also will eat the eggs if they find them.[44] The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) is a predator to all turkeys of all ages in the Southeast and will eat them if they get too close to water. Humans are now the leading predator of adult turkeys.[45][46] When approached by potential predators, turkeys and their poults usually run away rather than fly away from potential predators, though they may also fly short distances if pressed.

Occasionally, if cornered, adult turkeys may try to fight off predators and large male toms can be especially aggressive in self-defense. When fighting off predators, turkeys may kick with their legs, using the spurs on their back of the legs as a weapon, bite with their beak and ram with their relatively large bodies and may be able to deter predators up to the size of mid-sized mammals.[47][48] Hen turkeys have been seen to chase off at least two species of hawks in flight when their poults are threatened.[49]

Wild turkeys are not usually aggressive towards humans, but can be frightened or provoked to behave with aggression. They are most likely to attack if startled, cornered or harassed, or if approached too closely. They also have been seen to chase off humans as well. However, attacks and potential injuries can usually be avoided by giving wild turkeys a respectful amount of space and keeping outdoor spaces clean and undisturbed.[50] Also, turkeys that are habituated to seeing people, at places like parks or campgrounds, can be very tame and will even feed from the hands of people. Male toms occasionally will attack parked cars and reflective surfaces, thinking they see another turkey and must defend their territory, but starting a car engine and moving the car is typically enough to scare it away.

Range and population

The A Bird of the Deciduous Forest, Wild Turkey, Georgia diorama at the Milwaukee Public Museum

The wild turkey in the United States in 1957 ranged from Arizona to southeastern Oklahoma and thence through Tennessee, West Virginia, New York, and Ontario, and south to Florida and Texas. It formerly ranged north to southeastern South Dakota, southern Wisconsin, and southwestern Maine.[51] The A.O.U. Checklist also described Upper Pliocene fossils in Kansas, and Pleistocene fossils widely from New Mexico to Pennsylvania and Florida.[52] The Californian turkey (Meleagris californica) is an extinct species of turkey indigenous to the Pleistocene and early Holocene of California. It became extinct about 10,000 years ago. The present Californian wild turkey population derives from wild birds re-introduced during the 1960s and 70s from other areas by game officials.[53] They proliferated after 2000 to become an everyday sight in the East Bay Area by 2015.[54]

At the beginning of the 20th century the range and numbers of wild turkeys had plummeted due to hunting and loss of habitat. When Europeans arrived in the New World, they were found from Canada to Mexico in the millions. Europeans and their successors knew nothing about the life cycle of the bird and ecology itself as a science would come too late, not even in its infancy until the end of the 19th century whereas heavy hunting began in the 17th century. Deforestation destroyed trees turkeys need to roost in. Destruction of subtypes of environment like prairie grassland in the Midwest, canebrakes in the Southeast, and pine in the desert highlands made them easy prey for predators as there was nowhere to hide or lay eggs.

Game managers estimate that the entire population of wild turkeys in the United States was as low as 30,000 by the late 1930s.[55] By the 1940s, it was almost totally extirpated from Canada and had become localized in pockets in the United States, in the north-east effectively restricted to the Appalachians, only as far north as central Pennsylvania. Early attempts used hand reared birds, a practice that failed miserably as the birds were unable to survive in the wild at all and many had imprinted far too much on people to effectively survive. Game officials later made efforts to protect and encourage the breeding of the surviving wild population. They would wait for numbers to grow, catch the surplus birds with a device that would have a projectile net that would ensnare the creature, move it to another unoccupied territory, and repeat the cycle. Over time this included some in the western states where it was not native. There is evidence that the bird does well when near farmland, which provides grain and also berry-bearing shrubs at its edges.[56] As wild turkey numbers rebounded, hunting became legal in 49 U.S. states (excluding Alaska). In 1973, the total U.S. population was estimated to be 1.3 million, and current estimates place the entire wild turkey population at 7 million individuals. Since the 1980s, "trap and transfer" projects have reintroduced wild turkeys to several provinces of Canada as well, sometimes from across the border in the United States. They appear to be very successful as of 2018 as wild turkeys have multiplied rapidly and flourished in places where they were not expected to survive by Canadian scientists, often quite far north of their original expected range.

Attempts to introduce the wild turkey to Britain as a game bird in the 18th century were not successful.[57] George II is said to have had a flock of a few thousand in Richmond Park near London, but they were too easy for local poachers to destroy, and the fights with poachers became too dangerous for the gamekeepers. They were hunted with dogs and then shot out of trees where they took refuge. Several other populations, introduced or escaped, have survived for periods elsewhere in Britain and Ireland, but seem to have died out, perhaps from a combination of lack of winter feed and poaching.[58] Small populations, probably descended from farm as well as wild stock, in the Czech Republic and Germany have been more successful, and there are wild populations of some size following introductions in Hawaii and New Zealand.[59]

Subspecies

There are subtle differences in the coloration, habitat, and behavior of the different subspecies of wild turkeys. The six subspecies are:

Eastern wild turkey

Eastern wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) (Viellot, 1817)

This was the turkey subspecies Europeans first encountered in the wild: by the Puritans, the founders of Jamestown, the Dutch who lived in New York, and by the Acadians. Its range is one of the largest of all subspecies, covering the entire eastern half of the United States from Maine in the north to northern Florida and extending as far west as Minnesota, Illinois, and into Missouri. In Canada, its range extends into Southeastern Manitoba, Ontario, Southwestern Quebec (including Pontiac, Quebec and the lower half of the Western Quebec Seismic Zone), and the Maritime Provinces. They number from 5.1 to 5.3 million birds. They were first named 'forest turkey' in 1817, and can grow up to 4 ft (1.2 m) tall. The upper tail coverts are tipped with chestnut brown. Males can reach 30 lb (14 kg) in weight. The eastern wild turkey is heavily hunted in the Eastern USA and is the most hunted wild turkey subspecies.

Osceola wild turkey or Florida wild turkey (M. g. osceola) (Scott, 1890)

Most common in the Florida peninsula, they number from 80,000 to 100,000 birds. This bird is named for the famous Seminole leader Osceola, and was first described in 1890. It is smaller and darker than the eastern wild turkey. The wing feathers are very dark with smaller amounts of the white barring seen on other subspecies. Their overall body feathers are an iridescent green-purple color. They are often found in scrub patches of palmetto and occasionally near swamps, where amphibian prey is abundant. Osceola turkeys are the smallest subspecies weighing 16 to 18 pounds (7 to 8 kg).

Rio Grande wild turkey has relatively long legs

Rio Grande wild turkey (M. g. intermedia) (Sennett, 1879)

The Rio Grande wild turkey ranges through Texas to Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado, Oregon, Utah, and was introduced to central and western California, as well as parts of a few northeastern states. It was also introduced to Hawaiʻi in the late 1950s. Population estimates for this subspecies are around 1,000,000.[60] This subspecies, native to the central plain states, was first described in 1879, and has relatively long legs, better adapted to a prairie habitat. Its body feathers often have a green-coppery sheen. The tips of the tail and lower back feathers are a buff-to-very light tan color. Its habitats are brush areas next to streams, rivers or mesquite, pine and scrub oak forests. The Rio Grande turkey is gregarious.

Merriam's wild turkey (M. g. merriami) (Nelson, 1900)

The Merriam's wild turkey ranges through the Rocky Mountains and the neighboring prairies of Wyoming, Montana and South Dakota, as well as much of the high mesa country of New Mexico, Arizona, southern Utah and The Navajo Nation, with number from 334,460 to 344,460 birds. The subspecies has also been introduced into Oregon. The initial releases of Merriam's turkeys in 1961 resulted in establishing a remnant population of Merriam's turkeys along the east-slope of Mt. Hood and natural immigration of turkeys from Idaho has established Merriam's flocks along the eastern border of Oregon.[61] Merriam's wild turkeys live in ponderosa pine and mountainous regions. The subspecies was named in 1900 in honor of Clinton Hart Merriam, the first chief of the U.S. Biological Survey. The tail and lower back feathers have white tips and purple and bronze reflections.

Gould's wild turkey (M. g. mexicana) (Gould, 1856)

Gould's wild turkey

Native from the central valleys to the northern mountains of Mexico and the southernmost parts of Arizona and New Mexico. Gould's wild turkeys are heavily protected and regulated. The subspecies was first described in 1856. They exist in small numbers in the U.S. but are abundant in northwestern portions of Mexico. A small population has been established in southern Arizona. Gould's are the largest of the six subspecies. They have longer legs, larger feet, and longer tail feathers. The main colors of the body feathers are copper and greenish-gold. This subspecies is heavily protected owing to its skittish nature and threatened status.

South Mexican wild turkey (M. g. gallopavo) (Linnaeus, 1758)

The south Mexican wild turkey is considered the nominate subspecies, and the only one that is not found in the United States or Canada. In central Mexico, archaeological M. gallopavo bones have been identified at sites dating to 800–100 BC [10], [11]. It is unclear whether these early specimens represent wild or domestic individuals, but domestic turkeys were likely established in central Mexico by the first half of the Classic Period (c. AD 200–1000). Late Preclassic (300 BC–AD 100) turkey remains identified at the archaeological site of El Mirador (Petén, Guatemala) represent the earliest evidence of the export of the south Mexican wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo) to the ancient Maya world. The south Mexican wild subspecies, M. g. gallopavo, was domesticated either in Mexico or by Preclassic peoples in Mesoamerica, giving rise to the domestic turkey (M. g. domesticus).[62] The Spaniards brought this tamed subspecies back to Europe with them in the mid-16th century; from Spain it spread to France and later Britain as a farmyard animal, usually becoming the centerpiece of a feast for the well-to-do. By 1620 it was common enough so that Pilgrim settlers of Massachusetts could bring turkeys with them from England, unaware that it had a larger close relative already occupying the forests of Massachusetts. It is one of the smallest subspecies and is best known in Spanish from its Aztec-derived name, guajolote. This wild turkey subspecies is thought to be critically endangered, as of 2010.

Female wild turkey with young, from Birds of America by John James Audubon

Benjamin Franklin and the myth of U.S. national bird suggestion

The idea that Benjamin Franklin preferred the turkey as the national bird of the United States comes from a letter he wrote to his daughter Sarah Bache on 26 January 1784.[63] The main subject of the letter is a criticism of the Society of the Cincinnati, which he likened to a chivalric order, which contradicted the ideals of the newly founded American republic.[64] In one section of the letter, Franklin remarked on the appearance of the bald eagle on the Society's crest:

Others object to the Bald Eagle, as looking too much like a Dindon, or Turkey. For my own part I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen the Representative of our Country. He is a Bird of bad moral Character. He does not get his Living honestly. You may have seen him perched on some dead Tree near the River, where, too lazy to fish for himself, he watches the Labour of the Fishing Hawk [osprey]; and when that diligent Bird has at length taken a Fish, and is bearing it to his Nest for the Support of his Mate and young Ones, the Bald Eagle pursues him and takes it from him. With all this Injustice, he is never in good Case but like those among Men who live by Sharping & Robbing he is generally poor and often very lousy. Besides he is a rank Coward: The little King Bird not bigger than a Sparrow attacks him boldly and drives him out of the District. He is therefore by no means a proper Emblem for the brave and honest Cincinnati of America who have driven all the King birds from our Country ...

I am on this account not displeased that the Figure is not known as a Bald Eagle, but looks more like a Turkey. For in Truth the Turkey is in Comparison a much more respectable Bird, and withal a true original Native of America ... He is besides, though a little vain & silly, a Bird of Courage, and would not hesitate to attack a Grenadier of the British Guards who should presume to invade his Farm Yard with a red Coat on.

Franklin never publicly voiced opposition to the bald eagle as a national symbol, nor did he ever publicly suggest the turkey as a national symbol.[64][65]

Significance to Native Americans

Eastern wild turkey (M. g. silvestris) hens

The wild turkey, throughout its range, plays a significant role in the cultures of many Native American tribes all over North America. Outside of the Thanksgiving feast, it is a favorite meal in eastern tribes. Eastern Native American tribes consumed both the eggs and meat, sometimes turning the latter into a type of jerky to preserve it and make it last through cold weather. They provided habitat by burning down portions of forests to create meadows which would attract mating birds, and thus give a clear shot to hunters. The feathers of turkeys also often made their way into the rituals and headgear of many tribes. Many leaders, such as Catawba chiefs, traditionally wore turkey feather headdresses.[66]

Significant peoples of several tribes, including Muscogee Creek and Wampanoag, wore turkey feather cloaks.[67] The turkey clan is one of the three Lenape clans.[68] Movements of wild turkeys inspired the Caddo tribe's turkey dance.[69] The Navajo people of Northeastern Arizona, New Mexico and Utah call the turkey Tązhii and relate the bird to the corn and seeds which The Turkey in Navajo folklore brought from the Third Navajo World. It is one of the Navajos' sacred birds, with the Navajo people using the feathers and parts in multiple traditional ceremonies.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2018). "Meleagris gallopavo". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2018: e.T22679525A132051953. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22679525A132051953.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ "What Does a Wild Turkey Look Like?". nwtf.org. National Wild Turkey Federation. Archived from the original on 2012-11-08. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
  3. ^ "Welcome to the Turkey Habitat" (PDF). Habitat Tracker. Florida State University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2013-03-12.
  4. ^ Braun, M.S.; Zimmermann, S.; Danner, M.; Rashid, H.; Wink, M. (2016). "Corynebacterium uropygiale sp. nov., isolated from the preen gland of Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo)". Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 39 (2): 88–92. doi:10.1016/j.syapm.2015.12.001. PMID 26776107.
  5. ^ Hill, Geoffrey E.; Doucet, Stéphanie M.; Buchholz, Richard (2005). "The effect of coccidial infection on iridescent plumage coloration in wild turkeys". Animal Behaviour. 69 (2): 387–94. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.03.013. S2CID 39103898.
  6. ^ "Wild Turkey Facts". nwtf.org. National Wild Turkey Federation. Archived from the original on 2009-11-13. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
  7. ^ a b c Craves, J. (30 April 2021). "Julie Craves explains Wild Turkey 'beards'". BirdWatching. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  8. ^ a b McKee, J. (18 November 2022). "Let's Talk Turkey Beards". Audubon. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  9. ^ "Wild Turkey". National Geographic. 11 November 2010. Archived from the original on 2011-11-12. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
  10. ^ Kirschbaum, K.; McCullough, J. (2001). "Meleagris gallopavo wild turkey". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology. Archived from the original on 2023-01-01. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
  11. ^ a b Dunning, J.B., ed. (1993). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0849342589.
  12. ^ Dunning, J.B., ed. (2008). CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 9781420064445.
  13. ^ "Birds Master Database Search". flmnh.ufl.edu. Florida Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 2016-09-25. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
  14. ^ Madge, S.; McGowan, P. (2002). Pheasants, Partridges, and Grouse: A Guide to the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Grouse, Guineafowl, Buttonquails, and Sandgrouse of the World. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691089089.
  15. ^ "NWTF Wild Turkey Records". nwtf.org. National Wild Turkey Federation. Archived from the original on 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2023-04-05.
  16. ^ Wood, G.L. (1982). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats (3rd ed.). Enfield, Middlesex, UK: Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 9780851122359.
  17. ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2008). Wild turkey: Meleagris gallopavo, GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg Archived 2017-07-25 at the Wayback Machine
  18. ^ Burke, Matt (April 26, 2017). "Can Turkeys fly?". Metro USA. Archived from the original on 19 January 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2019.
  19. ^ "Wild Turkey Behavior". www.nwtf.org. Archived from the original on 2018-11-13. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
  20. ^ a b Kirschbaum, Kari; McCullough, Jason. "Meleagris gallopavo (wild turkey)". Animal Diversity Web. Archived from the original on 2020-11-24. Retrieved 2020-11-18.
  21. ^ Krakauer, Alan H. (2005). "Kin selection and cooperative courtship in wild turkeys". Nature. 434 (7029): 69–72. Bibcode:2005Natur.434...69K. doi:10.1038/nature03325. PMID 15744300. S2CID 1457512.
  22. ^ Byrne, Michael E.; Chamberlain, Michael J. (2018). "Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Adult Female Eastern Wild Turkeys in a Bottomland Hardwood Forest". Southeastern Naturalist (Steuben, Me.). 17 (2): 345–56. doi:10.1656/058.017.0216. S2CID 90478338.
  23. ^ "Turkeys Play with Deer and Squirrels". BBC Earth. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  24. ^ "My Life as a Turkey". BBC Nature. 2011–2012. Retrieved 20 November 2022.
  25. ^ Baker, B. W. (1978). "Ecological factors affecting wild turkey nest predation on south Texas rangelands". Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 32: 126–36.
  26. ^ Holdstock, D. P.; Wallace, M. C.; Ballard, W. B.; Brunjes, J. H.; Phillips, R. S.; Spears, B. L.; Gipson, P. S. (2006). "Male Rio Grande turkey survival and movements in the Texas Panhandle and southwestern Kansas". Journal of Wildlife Management. 70 (4): 904–13. doi:10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[904:mrgtsa]2.0.co;2. S2CID 86170120.
  27. ^ Pharris, L. D.; Goetz, R. C. (1980). "An evaluation of artificial wild turkey nests monitored by automatic cameras". Proceedings of the National Wild Turkey Symposium. 4: 108–16.
  28. ^ Williams, L. E.; Austin, D. H.; Eichholz, N. F. (1976). "The breeding potential of the wild turkey hen". Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies. 30: 371–6.
  29. ^ Reagan, J. M.; Morgan, K.D. (1980). "Reproductive potential of Rio Grande turkey hens in the Edwards Plateau of Texas". Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 4: 136–44.
  30. ^ Peoples, J. C.; Sisson, D. C.; Speake, D. W. (1995). "Mortality of wild turkey poults in coastal plain pine forests". Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 49: 448–53.
  31. ^ Beasom, S.L.; Pattee, O.H. (1975). "An Encounter between a Turkey and a Bullsnake". Wilson Bulletin. 87 (2): 281–2.
  32. ^ Dreibelbis, J. Z.; Melton, K. B.; Aguirre, R.; Collier, B. A.; Hardin, J.; Silvy, N. J.; Peterson, M. J. (2008). "Predation of Rio Grande wild turkey nests on the Edwards Plateau, Texas". The Wilson Journal of Ornithology. 120 (4): 906–10. doi:10.1676/07-183.1. S2CID 53310713.
  33. ^ McEwan, L. C.; Hirth, D. H. (1980). "Food habits of the bald eagle in north-central Florida". Condor. 82 (2): 229–31. doi:10.2307/1367485. JSTOR 1367485.
  34. ^ Haucke, H.H. (1971). "Predation by a White-Tailed Hawk and a Harris Hawk on a Wild Turkey Poult". Condor. 73 (4): 475. doi:10.2307/1366672. JSTOR 1366672.
  35. ^ Glidden, J. W.; Austin, D. E. (1975). "Natality and mortality of wild turkey poults in southwestern New York". Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 3: 48–54.
  36. ^ Schemnitz, S.D.; Goerndt, D.L.; Jones, H. (1985). "Habitat needs and management of Merriam's turkeys in southcentral New Mexico". Proc. Natl. Wild Turkey Symp. 5: 199–232.
  37. ^ Golet, G.H.; Golet, H.T.; Colton, A. (2003). "Immature Northern Goshawk Captures, Kills, and Feeds on Adult-Sized Wild Turkey". Journal of Raptor Research. 37 (4): 337–40.
  38. ^ Goldyn, B.; Hromada, M.; Surmacki, A.; Tryjanowski, P. (2003). "Habitat use and diet of the red fox Vulpes vulpes in an agricultural landscape in Poland". Zeitschrift für Jagdwissenschaft. 49 (3): 191–200. doi:10.1007/BF02189737. S2CID 43335225.
  39. ^ MacCracken, J. G.; Uresh, D. W. (1984). "Coyote foods in the Black Hills, South Dakota". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 48 (4): 1420–3. doi:10.2307/3801809. JSTOR 3801809.
  40. ^ Reed, J. E.; Ballard, W. B.; Gipson, P. S.; Kelly, B. T.; Krausman, P. R.; Wallace, M. C.; Wester, D. B. (2006). "Diets of free-ranging Mexican gray wolves in Arizona and New Mexico". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 34 (4): 1127–33. doi:10.2193/0091-7648(2006)34[1127:dofmgw]2.0.co;2. S2CID 55402865.
  41. ^ Beasom, S. L.; Moore, R. A. (1977). "Bobcat food habit response to a change in prey abundance". The Southwestern Naturalist: 451–7.
  42. ^ Maehr, D. S.; Belden, R. C.; Land, E. D.; Wilkins, L. (1990). "Food habits of panthers in southwest Florida". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 54 (3): 420–3. doi:10.2307/3809651. JSTOR 3809651.
  43. ^ Lehman, C. P.; Thompson, D. J. (2004). "Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) predation attempts on Merriam's turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) in the southern Black Hills, South Dakota". Journal of Raptor Research. 38 (2): 192.
  44. ^ Stratman, M. R.; Pelton, M. R. (1999). "Feeding ecology of black bears in northwest Florida". Florida Field Naturalist. 27 (3): 95–102.
  45. ^ ADW: Meleagris gallopavo: INFORMATION Archived 2011-06-11 at the Wayback Machine. Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu (2006-03-12). Retrieved on 2012-08-21.
  46. ^ Kennamer, James Earl. Predators and Wild Turkeys Archived 2008-08-07 at the Wayback Machine. NWTF Wildlife Bulletin NO.16
  47. ^ Wild Turkey Predators, Wild Turkey Predation: National Wild Turkey Federation Archived 2012-11-10 at the Wayback Machine. Nwtf.org. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
  48. ^ Wild Turkey Predators Archived 2012-06-26 at the Wayback Machine. Waterandwoods.net (2008-09-20). Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
  49. ^ Johnson, R.R. (1961). "Aerial Pursuit of Hawks by Turkeys". The Auk. 78 (4): 646. doi:10.2307/4082208. JSTOR 4082208.
  50. ^ Living with wildlife: Turkey: Minnesota DNR Archived 2012-10-28 at the Wayback Machine. Dnr.state.mn.us. Retrieved on 2012-12-19.
  51. ^ The American Ornithologists' Union Check-list (5th ed., 1957).
  52. ^ Don Roberson, "Wild Turkey: A Native California Bird?" -- with an excellent map of the pre-Columbian range of the Wild Turkey and the sites of various fossils from the late Pleistocene Archived 2015-03-01 at the Wayback Machine citing Steadman, David W. (1980). "A review of the osteology and paleontology of turkeys (Aves: Meleagridinae)". Contributions in Science, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. 330: 131–207.
  53. ^ California Department of Fish and Game. Wild Turkey Guide 2005 Archived 2008-10-27 at the Wayback Machine.
  54. ^ Rubio, Tena (November 27, 2015). "Like It or Not, Wild Turkeys Proliferate in East Bay". kqed.org. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
  55. ^ Smith, Andrew F. (2006). "The Fall and Rise of the Edible Turkey". In Hosking, Richard (ed.). Wild Food: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 2004. Totnes, Devon, UK: Prospect Books. p. 298. ISBN 9781903018439. Archived from the original on 2016-05-09. Retrieved 2017-11-22.
  56. ^ Dickson, pp. 368-379
  57. ^ These birds were imported from Mexico, then called the Spanish West Indies. They did not come from Turkey or India, as was widely believed."Talking Turkey", World Wide Words. On line. Archived 2006-12-07 at the Wayback Machine
  58. ^ Dickson, p. 363; Maxwell, William Hamilton, The field book; or, Sports and pastimes of the British islands, by the author of 'Wild sports of the West, p. 540, London, 1833, Internet Archive
  59. ^ Dickson, pp. 363-368
  60. ^ Kennamer, Mary C. "NWTF Wildlife Bulletin No. 3: Rio Grande Wild Turkey" (PDF). NWTF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2013-05-25.
  61. ^ "Oregon State Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Division, Wild Turkey Management Plan" Archived 2011-06-20 at the Wayback Machine.
  62. ^ Thornton, Erin Kennedy; Emery, Kitty F.; Steadman, David W.; Speller, Camilla; Matheny, Ray; Yang, Dongya (2012). "Earliest Mexican Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) in the Maya Region: Implications for Pre-Hispanic Animal Trade and the Timing of Turkey Domestication". PLOS ONE. 7 (8): e42630. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...742630T. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042630. PMC 3414452. PMID 22905156.
  63. ^ "Benjamin Franklin to Sarah Bache, January 26, 1784". Manuscript Division. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 4, 2017. Retrieved January 28, 2018.
  64. ^ a b "The Arms of the United States: Benjamin Franklin and the Turkey". American Heraldry Society. Americanheraldry.org. 2007-05-18. MMM. Archived from the original on 2014-04-27. Retrieved 2012-05-30.
  65. ^ "Did Benjamin Franklin want the national bird to be a turkey?". Franklin Institute. Benjamin Franklin frequently asked questions. 28 June 2017. Archived from the original on 6 September 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  66. ^ Pritzker 367
  67. ^ Pritzker 381, 474
  68. ^ Pritzker 423
  69. ^ "Caddo Nation Today." Archived 2010-11-13 at the Wayback Machine Texas Beyond History. (retrieved 28 Dec 2010)

References

  • Dickson, James G., The Wild Turkey: Biology and Management (A National Wild Turkey Federation and USDA Forest Service book), 1992, Stackpole Books, ISBN 081171859X, 9780811718592, google books
  • Pritzker, Barry M. A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-513877-1.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

Wild turkey: Brief Summary

provided by wikipedia EN

The wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) is an upland game bird native to North America, one of two extant species of turkey and the heaviest member of the order Galliformes. It is the ancestor to the domestic turkey, which was originally derived from a southern Mexican subspecies of wild turkey (not the related ocellated turkey).

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN