dcsimg

Lifespan, longevity, and ageing

provided by AnAge articles
Maximum longevity: 29.8 years (captivity) Observations: These animals live up to 18 years (Ronald Nowak 1999) and 29.8 years in captivity (Richard Weigl 2005).
license
cc-by-3.0
copyright
Joao Pedro de Magalhaes
editor
de Magalhaes, J. P.
partner site
AnAge articles

Conservation Status

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The population of African buffaloes has decreased a little to due an increase in human activities (Nowak, 1983).

CITES: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Morphology

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The African buffalo is an extremely large animal. The length from the head to the back ranges from 2,100 mm to 3,000 mm; tail length ranges from 750 mm to 1,100 mm; and the shoulder height ranges from 1,000 mm to 1,700 mm. African buffalos have large heads and limbs along with a broad chest. The ears on these buffalos are large and droopy. The horns of the African buffalo either spread out and downward, upward, or out and back. In males, the two horns are joined by a boss, which is a shield that covers the entire head. Size varies between subspecies of the African buffalo; S. c. caffer, found in the eastern savannahs, may be twice as large as S. c. nana, which occurs in equatorial forests. The color of buffalo hair ranges from brown to black. Young buffalos have a dense covering of hair; adults have sparce hair; and very little hair is present on the very old (Nowak, 1983).

Range mass: 500 to 900 kg.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Life Expectancy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
29.5 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
26.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
16.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild:
18.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity:
29.5 years.

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Habitat

provided by Animal Diversity Web

African buffaloes are found in arid biomes, including areas with rivers, lakes, and swamps. They are found at sea level as well as in mountainous altitudes. African buffaloes like dense cover, but are found in open woodlands as well (Estes, 1991).

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Distribution

provided by Animal Diversity Web

The African buffalo is found in the middle of the African continent (Estes, 1991). This range stretches from just south of the Sahara to just north of South Africa (Nowak, 1983).

Biogeographic Regions: ethiopian (Native )

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Trophic Strategy

provided by Animal Diversity Web

African buffalos are herbivorous and are grazing animals. In the dry season, the pastures diminish and the buffalos move toward water or a depression in the ground and feed off of low nutrient grass. Once the rainy season begins, grasses increase considerably and are heavily grazed by the buffalo (Mloszewski, 1983). African buffalo spend 8 1/2 to 10 1/3 hours a day grazing. These animals graze slightly more at night than in the day. African buffalo also water once every day (Estes, 1991).

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

In the past, African buffaloes have been hunted for food and for sport (Nowak, 1983).

Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Benefits

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Some people consider African buffaloes to be the most dangerous big game animal in Africa. Old bulls have been known to stalk and attack humans. Scientists discredit this claim and say that these stories come from hunters who were trying to hunt down a wounded animal (Nowak, 1983).

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Behavior

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Perception Channels: tactile ; chemical

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction

provided by Animal Diversity Web

Reproduction occurs throughout the year in African buffalo, but reproduction peaks are associated with seasonal rainfall. On the Serengeti Plain, heavy rains occur from February to July. Conception usually occurs at the end of this wet season, and the birth of the calf takes place during the second half of the following wet season. Females are in heat for 23 days and estrus lasts 5 - 6 days. Once the egg is fertilized, gestation takes almost a year, 340 days.

Usually only one calf is born, and it weighs around 40 kg. Males leave their mother after two years to join a bachelor group. Females remain with the mother until they have produced their own young or longer (Nowak, 1983). Females reach sexual maturity at 5 years of age, which is 3 - 4 years before males (Estes, 1991).

Range number of offspring: 1 (low) .

Average number of offspring: 1.

Range gestation period: 11.43 to 11.53 months.

Range weaning age: 4 to 12 months.

Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual

Average birth mass: 44000 g.

Average number of offspring: 1.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male:
1674 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female:
1475 days.

Parental Investment: altricial ; post-independence association with parents

license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
The Regents of the University of Michigan and its licensors
bibliographic citation
Newell, T. 2000. "Syncerus caffer" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed April 27, 2013 at http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Syncerus_caffer.html
author
Toni Lynn Newell, University of Michigan-Ann Arbor
original
visit source
partner site
Animal Diversity Web

Biology

provided by Arkive
The African buffalo is a gregarious animal, the savanna subspecies forming large, imposing herds consisting of over one thousand individuals (3). The forest buffalo, due to its more restricted habitat, forms small groups of up to 12 animals, consisting of related females and their offspring and one or more males (2). Males not belonging to a herd are solitary, or form bachelor herds (2). Living in a herd has its advantages; information can be shared regarding the best places to feed, and it offers increased protection against predators (6). Bonds between females in a herd are strong (2), and if one is attacked by a predator such as a lion, the rest of the herd will respond to its bellowing distress calls and rush to its defence. A herd of buffalo are easily capable of driving away a whole pride of lions to protect a herd member (5). Living in large herds is not as important for the forest buffalo as they live in a habitat that does not suit carnivores, such as the lion, and they can easily retreat into cover if required (2). African buffalos spend most of their day lying in the shade to escape the heat. They can often be found drinking water in the early morning and late afternoon, and most feeding takes place during the cooler night (3). The African buffalo grazes extensively on fresh grass, turning only to herbs, shrubs and trees when there is a deficiency of grass (5). Their dietary habits are responsible for opening up areas of long grassland for other species with more selective feeding habits, and thus they play an important ecological role in the savannas of sub-Saharan Africa (5). March to May is the primary period of mating in the African buffalo, resulting in a pregnancy of about 11 months (2), with calves born from January to April (5). The bond between the mother and calf is very strong (2), and within just a few hours, the newborn calf is capable of keeping up with its herd (3). African buffalo are known to live for 26 years (2).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Conservation

provided by Arkive
The survival of most of the world's wild cattle species is believed to rely on their existence in properly protected reserves (6). Luckily, the African buffalo is well represented in numerous national parks and protected areas (2), such as Serengeti National Park and Kilimanjaro National Park, Tanzania (8) (9). As one of the 'big five', African buffalo are sought after by tourists on wildlife safaris, and by game hunters (5), giving people great economic incentive to conserve this impressive mammal.
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Description

provided by Arkive
The strong and imposing African buffalo is Africa's only wild cattle species (3), and one of the 'Big Five' mammals that were once popular with trophy hunters (4). With its bulky build and thick horns, it is easy to see why the African buffalo is considered to be a dangerous animal; and their propensity to attack and even kill humans when wounded by an arrow or bullet only acts to reinforce this reputation (3). There are two recognised subspecies of the African buffalo. Syncerus caffer caffer, the cape or savanna buffalo, is the larger of the two, with large ears fringed with hair hanging below their massive horns (3). It has a short, dark brown to black coat. The slightly smaller and lighter forest buffalo S.c. nanus has a reddish to dark red-brown coat (3), and smaller, swept-back horns (2). Distinctive tassels hang from the tips of the forest buffalo's ears (3).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Habitat

provided by Arkive
The savanna buffalo inhabits open woodland savanna, with abundant grass and drinking water, and areas of montane rainforest (3). The forest buffalo occupies more closed habitats, in lowland and highland forests (3).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Range

provided by Arkive
The African buffalo occurs in sub-Saharan Africa. It used to roam across all but the driest parts (2), but today few populations exist outside the confines of national parks and large conservation areas (5).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Status

provided by Arkive
Classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1).
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

Threats

provided by Arkive
Both the savanna and the forest buffalo still occur in considerable numbers, but populations have been greatly reduced by hunting, habitat loss and disease (3) (6). In several southern parts of its range, the African buffalo has never recovered from the devastating rinderpest epidemic that struck in the 1890s (6), and the potential for another rinderpest outbreak continues today. Another disease, bovine tuberculosis, is also known to affect African buffalo; a recent outbreak has impacted populations in Kruger National Park, South Africa (7). Outside of national parks in some areas, buffalos come into contact with humans; breaking fences, raiding crops and potentially spreading bovine diseases to livestock (4), and may be persecuted as a result.
license
cc-by-nc-sa-3.0
copyright
Wildscreen
original
visit source
partner site
Arkive

African buffalo

provided by wikipedia EN

Male African buffalo with red-billed oxpecker, partly a symbiotic relationship and partly parasitic
Resting buffalo
A pair of African buffalo resting inside Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania.

The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is a large sub-Saharan African bovine.[2] There are five subspecies that are recognized as being valid. Syncerus caffer caffer, the Cape buffalo, is the nominotypical subspecies, and the largest one, found in Southern and East Africa. S. c. nanus (the forest buffalo) is the smallest subspecies, common in forest areas of Central and West Africa, while S. c. brachyceros is in West Africa and S. c. aequinoctialis is in the savannas of East Africa. The adult African buffalo's horns are its characteristic feature: they have fused bases, forming a continuous bone shield across the top of the head referred to as a "boss". It is widely regarded as one of the most dangerous animals on the African continent, and according to some estimates it gores, tramples, and kills over 200 people every year.

The African buffalo is more closely related to other buffalo species than it is to other bovids such as American bison or domestic cattle, with its closest living relative being the Asian water buffalo.[3] Its unpredictable temperament may be part of the reason that the African buffalo has never been domesticated, which would also explain why the African buffalo has no domesticated descendants, unlike the wild yak which is an ancestor of the domestic yak. Natural predators of adult African buffaloes include lions, hyenas, and Nile crocodiles. As one of the Big Five game animals, the Cape buffalo is a sought-after trophy in hunting.

Description

Skull of an African buffalo

The African buffalo is a very robust species. Its shoulder height can range from 1.0 to 1.7 m (3.3 to 5.6 ft) and its head-and-body length can range from 1.7 to 3.4 m (5.6 to 11.2 ft). The tail can range from 70 to 110 cm (28 to 43 in) long.[4] Compared with other large bovids, it has a long but stocky body (the body length can exceed the wild water buffalo, which is heavier and taller) and short but thickset legs, resulting in a relatively short standing height. Cape buffaloes weigh 425 to 870 kg (937 to 1,918 lb) (males weigh about 100 kg (220 lb) more than females).[5] In comparison, African forest buffaloes, at 250 to 450 kg (600 to 1,000 lb), are only half that size.[6] Its head is carried low; its top is located below the backline. The front hooves of the buffalo are wider than the rear, which is associated with the need to support the weight of the front part of the body, which is heavier and more powerful than the back.

Savannah-type buffaloes have black or dark brown coats with age. Old bulls often have whitish circles around their eyes and on their face. Females tend to have more-reddish coats. Forest-type buffaloes are 30-40% smaller, reddish brown in colour, with much more hair growth around the ears and with horns that curve back and slightly up. Calves of both types have red coats.

A characteristic feature of the horns of adult male African buffalo (southern and eastern populations) is that the bases come very close together, forming a shield referred to as a "boss". From the base, the horns diverge downwards, then smoothly curve upwards and outwards and in some cases inwards and or backwards. In large bulls, the distance between the ends of the horns can reach upwards of one metre (the record being 64.5 inches 164 cm). The horns form fully when the animal reaches the age of 5 or 6 years old, but the bosses do not become "hard" until it reaches the age of 8 to 9 years old. In cows, the horns are, on average, 10–20% smaller, and they do not have a boss. Forest-type buffalo horns are smaller than those of the savanna-type buffaloes from Southern and East Africa, usually measuring less than 40 cm (16 in), and are almost never fused.

Unlike other large bovines, Cape Buffalo have 52 chromosomes, (for comparison, American Bison and Domestic Cattle have 60), this means domestic cattle and bison are unable to create hybrid offspring with cape buffalo.

Subspecies

Ecology

The African buffalo is one of the most successful grazers in Africa. It lives in savannas, swamps and floodplains, as well as mopane grasslands, and the forests of the major mountains of Africa.[16] This buffalo prefers a habitat with dense cover, such as reeds and thickets, but can also be found in open woodland.[17] While not particularly demanding in regard to habitat, they require water daily, and so they depend on perennial sources of water. Like the plains zebra, the buffalo can live on tall, coarse grasses. Herds of buffalo mow down grasses and make way for more selective grazers. When feeding, the buffalo makes use of its tongue and wide incisor row to eat grass more quickly than most other African herbivores. Buffaloes do not stay on trampled or depleted areas for long.

Other than humans, African buffaloes have few predators and are capable of defending themselves against (and killing) lions.[18] Lions kill and eat buffaloes regularly, and in some regions, the buffaloes are the lions' primary prey. It often takes several lions to bring down a single adult buffalo, and the entire pride may join in the hunt. However, several incidents have been reported in which lone adult male lions have successfully brought down adult buffaloes. On very rare occasions, buffaloes and white rhinos will fight over territory; due to the rhino's strength and size advantage, the rhino typically wins and the buffalo can die from injuries sustained during the encounter. Rhinos live solitary lives, whereas buffalo (excluding solitary adult bulls) primarily live social lives and thus they do not usually recognize each other as threats.[19] Hippopotamuses and buffalo also do not normally interact, but if the buffalo provokes the hippo or makes it feel threatened, a fight can break out, but this is also rare.[20] Adolescent bull African elephants may harass or kill Cape buffalo, either out of territorial aggression or while in musth; when they do this, the calves are most likely to be killed by the elephant attack as they are defenseless when facing an elephant alone, whereas adults will try to fight back and may survive (or succumb to injuries afterward).[21] The average-sized Nile crocodile typically attacks only old solitary animals and young calves, though they can kill healthy adults. Exceptionally large, old male crocodiles may become semi-habitual predators of buffaloes. [4][22][23] The cheetah, leopard, African wild dog and spotted hyena are normally a threat only to newborn calves, though larger clans of hyenas have been recorded killing cows (mainly pregnant ones) and, on rare occasions, full-grown bulls.[24][25][26] Large packs of wild dogs have been observed to hunt calves and sick adults.

Diseases

The African buffalo is susceptible to many diseases, including those shared with domestic cattle, such as bovine tuberculosis, corridor disease, and foot-and-mouth disease. As with many diseases, these problems remain dormant within a population as long as the health of the animals is good. These diseases do, however, restrict the legal movements of the animals and fencing infected areas from unaffected areas is enforced. Some wardens and game managers have managed to protect and breed "disease-free" herds which become very valuable because they can be transported. Most well-known are Lindsay Hunt's efforts to source uninfected animals from the Kruger National Park in South Africa. Some disease-free buffaloes in South Africa have been sold to breeders for close to US$130,000.[27]

Social behavior

An African buffalo herd

Herd size is highly variable. The core of the herds is made up of related females, and their offspring, in an almost linear dominance hierarchy. The basic herds are surrounded by subherds of subordinate males, high-ranking males and females, and old or invalid animals.

African buffaloes engage in several types of group behavior. Females appear to exhibit a sort of "voting behavior". During resting time, the females stand up, shuffle around, and sit back down again. They sit in the direction they think they should move. After an hour of more shuffling, the females travel in the direction they decide. This decision is communal and not based on hierarchy or dominance.[28]

When chased by predators, a herd sticks close together and makes it hard for the predators to pick off one member. Calves are gathered in the middle. A buffalo herd responds to the distress call of a threatened member and tries to rescue it.[29] A calf's distress call gets the attention of not only the mother, but also the herd. Buffaloes engage in mobbing behavior when fighting off predators. They have been recorded killing lions[30] and chasing lions up trees and keeping them there for two hours, after the lions have killed a member of their group. Lion cubs can get trampled and killed. In one videotaped instance, known as the Battle at Kruger, a calf survived an attack by both lions and a crocodile after intervention of the herd.

Males have a linear dominance hierarchy based on age and size. Since a buffalo is safer when a herd is larger, dominant bulls may rely on subordinate bulls and sometimes tolerate their copulation. The young males keep their distance from the dominant bull, which is recognizable by the thickness of his horns.[31]

Bulls in position to spar

Adult bulls spar in play, dominance interactions, or actual fights. A bull approaches another, lowing, with his horns down, and waits for the other bull to do the same thing. When sparring, the bulls twist their horns from side to side.[29] If the sparring is for play, the bull may rub his opponent's face and body during the sparring session. Actual fights are violent but rare and brief. Calves may also spar in play, but adult females rarely spar at all.

During the dry season, males split from the herd and form bachelor groups.[31] Two types of bachelor herds occur: ones made of males aged four to seven years and those of males 12 years or older.[32] During the wet season, the younger bulls rejoin a herd to mate with the females. They stay with them throughout the season to protect the calves.[33] Some older bulls cease to rejoin the herd, as they can no longer compete with the younger, more aggressive males. The old bachelors are called dagga boys ("mud covered"), and are considered the most dangerous to humans.[34]

Vocalizations

African buffaloes make various vocalizations. Many calls are lower-pitched versions of those emitted by domestic cattle. They emit low-pitched, two- to four-second calls intermittently at three- to six-second intervals to signal the herd to move. To signal to the herd to change direction, leaders emit "gritty", "creaking gate" sounds.[17] When moving to drinking places, some individuals make long "maaa" calls up to 20 times a minute. When being aggressive, they make explosive grunts that may last long or turn into a rumbling growl. Cows produce croaking calls when looking for their calves. Calves make a similar call of a higher pitch when in distress.[17] When threatened by predators, they make drawn-out "waaaa" calls. Dominant individuals make calls to announce their presence and location. A version of the same call, but more intense, is emitted as a warning to an encroaching inferior.[17] When grazing, they make various sounds, such as brief bellows, grunts, honks, and croaks.

Reproduction

Females reach sexual maturity at around five years of age while males are sexually matured at four to six. [35] African buffaloes mate and give birth only during the rainy seasons. Birth peak takes place early in the season, while mating peaks later. A bull closely guards a cow that comes into heat, while keeping other bulls at bay.[17][31] This is difficult, as cows are quite evasive and attract many males to the scene. By the time a cow is in full estrus, only the most dominant bull in the herd/subherd is there.[17]

Cows first calve at five years of age, after a gestation period of 11.5 months. Newborn calves remain hidden in vegetation for the first few weeks while being nursed occasionally by the mother before joining the main herd. Older calves are held in the centre of the herd for safety.[36] The maternal bond between mother and calf lasts longer than in most bovids. That bonding ends when a new calf is born, and the mother then keeps her previous offspring at bay with horn jabs. Nevertheless, the yearling follows its mother for another year or so. Males leave their mothers when they are two years old and join the bachelor groups. Young calves, unusually for bovids, suckle from behind their mothers, pushing their heads between the mothers' legs.[37]

In the wild African buffaloes have an average lifespan of 11 years but they've been recorded to reach 22 years of age. In captivity they can live for a maximum of 29.5 years though they only live 16 years on average. [38]

Relationship with humans

Ernest Hemingway poses with a Cape buffalo he shot in 1953

Status

The current status of the African buffalo is dependent on the animal's value to both trophy hunters and tourists, paving the way for conservation efforts through anti-poaching patrols, village crop damage payouts, and CAMPFIRE payback programs to local areas.

The African buffalo is listed as Near threatened by the IUCN, with a decreasing population of 400,000 individuals. While some populations (subspecies) are decreasing, others will remain unchanged in the long term if large, healthy populations continue to persist in a substantial number of national parks, equivalent reserves and hunting zones in southern and eastern Africa."[1]

In the most recent and available census data at continental scale, the total estimated numbers of the three savanna-type African buffalo subspecies (S. c. caffer, S. c. brachyceros and S. c. aequinoctialis) are at 513,000 individuals.[39]

In the past, numbers of African buffaloes suffered their most severe collapse during the great rinderpest epidemic of the 1890s, which, coupled with pleuro-pneumonia, caused mortalities as high as 95% among livestock and wild ungulates.[40]

Being a member of the big five game group, a term originally used to describe the five most dangerous animals to hunt, the Cape buffalo is a sought-after trophy, with some hunters paying over $10,000 for the opportunity to hunt one. The larger bulls are targeted for their trophy value, although in some areas, buffaloes are still hunted for meat.

Attacks

One of the "big five" African game, it is known as "the Black Death" or "the widowmaker," and is widely regarded as a very dangerous animal. According to some estimates, it gores and kills over 200 people every year. African buffaloes are sometimes reported to kill more people in Africa than any other animal, although the same claim is also made of hippopotamuses and crocodiles.[41] These numbers may be somewhat overestimated; for example, in the country of Mozambique, attacks, especially fatal ones, were much less frequent on humans than those by hippos, and especially, Nile crocodiles.[42] In Uganda, on the other hand, large herbivores were found to attack more people on average than lions or leopards and have a higher rate of inflicting fatalities during attacks than the predators (the African buffalo, in particular, killing humans in 49.5% of attacks on them), but hippos and even elephants may still kill more people per annum than buffaloes.[43] African buffaloes are notorious among big-game hunters as very dangerous animals, with wounded animals reported to ambush and attack pursuers.[44]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2019). "Syncerus caffer". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T21251A50195031. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-1.RLTS.T21251A50195031.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ^ Grubb, P. (2005). "Order Artiodactyla". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 695–696. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  3. ^ Jirik, Kate. "LibGuides: Forest Buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus) Fact Sheet: Taxonomy & History". ielc.libguides.com. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  4. ^ a b Huffman, Brent (2010-05-24). "Syncerus caffer – African buffalo". Ultimateungulate.com. Archived from the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved 2010-10-23.
  5. ^ Estes, Richard; et al. (2020). "Cape buffalo". Britannica. Retrieved 2023-02-16.
  6. ^ Boitani, Luigi, Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books (1984), ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1
  7. ^ Cornélis, D., Melletti, M., Korte, L., Ryan, S. J., Mirabile, M., Prin, T., & Prins, H. H. (2014). African buffalo Syncerus caffer (Sparrman, 1779). In Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour of Wild Cattle: Implications for Conservation (pp. 326-372). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
  8. ^ a b Grubb, P. (1972). Variation and incipient speciation in the African buffalo. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde, 37, 121-144.
  9. ^ Visscher, D. R., Van Aarde, R. J., & Whyte, I. (2004). Environmental and maternal correlates of foetal sex ratios in the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) and savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine. Journal of Zoology, 264(2), 111-116.
  10. ^ Bonyongo, M. C., & Harris, S. (2007). Grazers species‐packing in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. African Journal of Ecology, 45(4), 527-534.
  11. ^ Oindo, B. O. (2002). Body size and measurement of species diversity in large grazing mammals. African Journal of Ecology, 40(3), 267-275.
  12. ^ Korte, L. M. (2008). "Variation of group size among African buffalo herds in a forest‐savanna mosaic landscape". Journal of Zoology. 275 (3): 229–236. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2008.00430.x.
  13. ^ Brown, W. (1988). Age determination of the West African buffalo Syncerus caffer brachyceros and the constancy of tooth wear. African Journal of Ecology, 26(3), 221-227.
  14. ^ C. P. Groves, D. M. Leslie Jr. (2011) Family Bovidae (Hollow-horned Ruminants). pp. 585–588. In: Wilson, D. E., Mittermeier, R. A., (Hrsg.). Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, 2009. ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4
  15. ^ "BioLib - Syncerus caffer matthewsi (Virunga Buffalo)". biolib.cz.
  16. ^ Hughes, Kristen; Fosgate, Geoffrey T.; Budke, Christine M.; Ward, Michael P.; Kerry, Ruth; Ingram, Ben (13 September 2017). "Modeling the spatial distribution of African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park, South Africa". PLOS ONE. 12 (9): e0182903. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1282903H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0182903. PMC 5597095. PMID 28902858.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Estes, R. (1991) The Behavior Guide to African Mammals, Including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores, Primates. Los Angeles, The University of California Press. pp. 195–200 ISBN 0520080858
  18. ^ "Cape Buffalo". Canadian Museum of Nature. Retrieved 2010-10-23.
  19. ^ "'Extremely rare sighting' of rhino's head-to-head battle with buffalo caught on camera | Animal Behaviour | Earth Touch News". Earth Touch News Network. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  20. ^ "Buffalo escapes pride of 15 lions and then 3 hippos". Getaway Magazine. 2023-03-31. Retrieved 2023-04-30.
  21. ^ bennostand (2015-10-06). "VIDEO: Why the elephant killed the buffalo - an expert's opinion". Lowvelder. Retrieved 2023-05-01.
  22. ^ Graham, A. D. (1968). The Lake Rudolf Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti) Population. Masters of Science Thesis, The University of East Africa.
  23. ^ Pienaar, U. D. V. (1969). "Predator-prey relationships amongst the larger mammals of the Kruger National Park". Koedoe. 12. doi:10.4102/koedoe.v12i1.753.
  24. ^ Kruuk, Hans (1979). The Spotted Hyena: A study of predation and social behaviour. University of Chicago Press. p. 335. ISBN 978-0-226-45508-2.
  25. ^ Trinkel, M. (11 December 2009). "Prey selection and prey preferences of spotted hyenas Crocuta crocuta in the Etosha National Park, Namibia". Ecological Research. 25 (2): 413–417. doi:10.1007/S11284-009-0669-3. ISSN 0912-3814. Wikidata Q105300095.
  26. ^ Hayward, M. W. (December 2006). "Prey preferences of the spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) and degree of dietary overlap with the lion (Panthera leo)". Journal of Zoology. 270 (4): 606–614. doi:10.1111/J.1469-7998.2006.00183.X. ISSN 1469-7998. Wikidata Q55951239.
  27. ^ Laing, Aislinn (24 April 2016). "Why is this buffalo worth £8.5 million?". The Telegraph. The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  28. ^ Wilson, D. S. (1997). "Altruism and Organism: Disentangling the Themes of Multilevel Selection Theory". The American Naturalist. 150: S122–S134. doi:10.1086/286053. JSTOR 2463504. PMID 18811309. S2CID 23390199.
  29. ^ a b Sinclair, A. R. E. (1977) The African Buffalo. Chicago, The University of Chicago Press.
  30. ^ YouTube. youtube.com.
  31. ^ a b c Turner, W. C.; Jolles, A. E.; Owen-Smith, N. (18 October 2005). "Alternating sexual segregation during the mating season by male African buffalo (Syncerus caffer)". Journal of Zoology. 267 (03): 291. doi:10.1017/S095283690500748X. ISSN 1469-7998. Wikidata Q56338562.
  32. ^ Ryan, S. J.; Knetchtel, Christiane U.; Wayne, M. (2006). "Range and habitat Selection of African Buffalo in South Africa" (PDF). Journal of Wildlife Management. 70 (3): 764–776. doi:10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70[764:RAHSOA]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 356110.
  33. ^ Main, M. B.; Coblentz, Bruce E. (1990). "Sexual Segregation among Ungulate: A Critique". Wildlife Society Bulletin. 18 (2): 204–210. JSTOR 3782137.
  34. ^ "Buffalo - Godfather of the African bushveld". Africa Geographic. 5 August 2020. Archived from the original on 6 August 2021.
  35. ^ Ng, Christoph. "Syncerus caffer (African buffalo)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2022-12-15.
  36. ^ "African Buffalo". British Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 27 October 2010. Retrieved 2010-10-23.
  37. ^ Prins, H.H.T (1996). Ecology and Behaviour of the African Buffalo: Social Inequality and Decision Making. Springer. p. 118. ISBN 978-0-412-72520-3. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
  38. ^ Ng, Christoph. "Syncerus caffer (African buffalo)". Animal Diversity Web. Retrieved 2022-12-15.
  39. ^ Melletti M. and Burton J. (eds). 2014. Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour of Wild Cattle: Implications for Conservation. Cambridge University Press
  40. ^ Winterbach, H. E. K. (1998). "Research review: the status and distribution of Cape buffalo Syncerus caffer caffer in southern Africa". South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 28 (3): 82–88.
  41. ^ Stumpf, Bruce G. "Africa on the Matrix: The Cape Buffalo". Archived from the original on 2002-12-20. Retrieved 2010-10-23.
  42. ^ Dunham, K. M., Ghiurghi, A., Cumbi, R., & Urbano, F. (2010). Human–wildlife conflict in Mozambique: a national perspective, with emphasis on wildlife attacks on humans. Oryx, 44(2), 185-193.
  43. ^ Treves, A., & Naughton-Treves, L. (1999). Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores. Journal of Human Evolution, 36(3), 275-282.
  44. ^ "African Animals Hunting facts and tips – Buffalo Hunting". safariBwana newsletter. Archived from the original on 2013-07-08. Retrieved 2010-10-23.
license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN

African buffalo: Brief Summary

provided by wikipedia EN
Male African buffalo with red-billed oxpecker, partly a symbiotic relationship and partly parasitic Resting buffalo A pair of African buffalo resting inside Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzania.

The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is a large sub-Saharan African bovine. There are five subspecies that are recognized as being valid. Syncerus caffer caffer, the Cape buffalo, is the nominotypical subspecies, and the largest one, found in Southern and East Africa. S. c. nanus (the forest buffalo) is the smallest subspecies, common in forest areas of Central and West Africa, while S. c. brachyceros is in West Africa and S. c. aequinoctialis is in the savannas of East Africa. The adult African buffalo's horns are its characteristic feature: they have fused bases, forming a continuous bone shield across the top of the head referred to as a "boss". It is widely regarded as one of the most dangerous animals on the African continent, and according to some estimates it gores, tramples, and kills over 200 people every year.

The African buffalo is more closely related to other buffalo species than it is to other bovids such as American bison or domestic cattle, with its closest living relative being the Asian water buffalo. Its unpredictable temperament may be part of the reason that the African buffalo has never been domesticated, which would also explain why the African buffalo has no domesticated descendants, unlike the wild yak which is an ancestor of the domestic yak. Natural predators of adult African buffaloes include lions, hyenas, and Nile crocodiles. As one of the Big Five game animals, the Cape buffalo is a sought-after trophy in hunting.

license
cc-by-sa-3.0
copyright
Wikipedia authors and editors
original
visit source
partner site
wikipedia EN