No direct observations of predation on Notoryctes typhlops have been made. N. typhlops remains have been found in fecal pellets of feral cats, dingoes, and the introduced red fox. Its fossorial lifestyle likely helps them significantly reduce risk of predation. When on the surface, N. typhlops are particularly susceptible to predation by birds and snakes. The ability to absorb various colors in the soil in which they burrow likely helps camouflage them from potential predators when above ground.
Known Predators:
Southern marsupial moles range from 13 to 15.5 cm in total length, with masses ranging from 30 to 60 g. Their short tail ranges from 2 to 2.5 cm in length. Sexual dimorphism has not been reported in this species. Their fur grows in bunches and is silky and short. Fur color varies regionally across their geographic range from creamy white to reddish brown, perhaps because the fur picks up colors from the soil in which the animals burrow.
Notoryctes typhlops lacks eyes and an optic nerve; only small black vestigial buds beneath the surface of the skin remain of the eyes. No external ears or ear pinnae exist and each external auditory meatus consists of a small hole surrounded by a dense covering of fur. Nostrils are reduced to tiny vertical slits and are located directly below the horny, keratinous shield that overlies the rostrum. Limbs are short with digits three and four having large, flattened, shovel-like claws. Both males and females have a backwards facing pouch, and that of females is better developed and contains two nipples. Dental formulas appear to vary among individuals as MacDonald (2009) lists the dental formula as I4/3, C1/1, P2/3, M4/4=44, whereas Benshemesh and Johnson (2003) report a dental formula of I4/4, C1/1, P3/3, M4/4=48. Their teeth are poorly rooted with incisors, canines and premolars being blunt. Upper molars are more developed and zalambdodont.
Range mass: 30 to 60 g.
Range length: 13 to 14.5 cm.
Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry
Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike
Very little in known about the lifespan of Notoryctes typhlops in the wild. Based on two records of southern marsupial moles kept in captivity, 1 animal survived for 10 weeks and the other for approximately 1 month. Both specimens may have died due to exposure to cold temperatures.
Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 2.5 (high) months.
Precise habitat preferences of southern marsupial moles is not well defined, as most records and sightings are scattered or based on second-hand Aboriginal accounts. They inhabit temperate deserts and are most commonly found burrowing in sandy dunes that have dense vegetation. These animals seek out habitats with abundant shrubs and grasses, including sandy plains and old river flats. They prefer areas of soft sand and are unable to cross hard-packed sand or loamy soil.
Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial
Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune
Very little is known about communication in southern marsupial moles. In captivity, they have been observed making sharp squeaking sounds when held or when feeding was interrupted. Their brain is considered to be extremely simple and primitive, however, their olfactory bulbs are large and well developed, suggesting that communication and perception are primarily through olfaction.
Communication Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
Perception Channels: tactile ; acoustic ; chemical
The ICUN Red List of Threatened Species classifies Notoryctes typhlops as data deficient; however, the Australian government lists it as endangered. Notoryctes typhlops faces many threats including increased predation by the red fox as well as other human-induced factors. Changed fire regimens and increased cattle farming cause declines in native plant populations, leading to reduced invertebrate populations. This limits the amount of food available for N. typhlops. The increasing presence of roads and railways is believed to limit the dispersal of southern marsupial moles. Conservation research has been ongoing since 1999 and aims to collaborate with aboriginal people and biologists to focus on gaining a better understanding of the ecology of this species.
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: data deficient
There are no known adverse affects of Notoryctes typhlops on humans.
Notoryctes typhlops is rarely used as a source of food by aboriginals. Historically pelts were traded and sold for a significant amount of money, however, this rarely occurs today. Notoryctes typhlops is primarily found in areas where few humans are present, thus their potential importance to humans is limited.
Positive Impacts: food ; body parts are source of valuable material
Southern marsupial moles are insectivores and may help control insect pest populations. They also aerate the soil adn increase water penetration by burrowing. It is unlikely that they are a significant prey item for other species as their remains have been found in only a small percentage of predator scat. Southern marsupial moles are host to nematode parasites in the superfamily Trichostrongyloidea.
Ecosystem Impact: soil aeration
Commensal/Parasitic Species:
Notoryctes typhlops is an insectivore. Based on gut contents, preferred forage consists of ants and ant eggs from the genus Iridomyrmex and the subfamily Myrmeciinae. Ants belonging to Rhytidoponera and Camponotus are also consumed. Termites, burrowing sawfly larvae, and several species of nematode are occasionally found in the gut contents of N. typhlops along with small reptiles and seeds. It has been suggested that seeds are only consumed as a result of feeding in underground ant nests. In captivity, eggs, earthworms, ant pupae, fly larvae, and beetle larvae have been used with limited success to feed these animals.
Southern marsupial moles are not well adapted for feeding on larger prey items, which are difficult for them to manipulate with their shovel-like claws. Small larvae are held down with the forelimbs, and some prey items are squeezed with the forelimbs before being eaten, presumably to make them softer. Larger prey are either lapped up or not consumed. Above-ground feeding has been observed, however, prey is often taken underground to be eaten.
Animal Foods: reptiles; insects
Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts
Primary Diet: carnivore (Insectivore )
Southern marsupial moles (Notoryctes typhlops) inhabit central Australian deserts along the borders of South Australia, West Australia, and Northern Territory.
Biogeographic Regions: australian (Native )
There is no information available regarding the mating system of southern marsupial moles.
Very little is known about reproduction in Notoryctes typhlops, as there have been no observations of reproductive behavior made in the field or in captivity. Aboriginal people claim to have never seen N. typhlops young and do not know any information about the reproduction of this species. Gestation, weaning, and age of maturity are unknown. Based on several pregnant female specimens, breeding season may take place in November. The number of young produced is not well known; however, there are examples of specimens with one or two young in their pouch.
Breeding interval: The breeding interval is not known.
Breeding season: Precise breeding season is unknown, however, pregnant females have been found in November.
Average number of offspring: 2.
Key Reproductive Features: gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); sexual ; viviparous
There is no information available regarding parental care in Notoryctes typhlops.
Parental Investment: pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female)
The southern marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops), also known as the itjaritjari (pronounced [ˈɪɟɐrɪɟɐrɪ]) or itjari-itjari,[3][4] is a mole-like marsupial found in the western central deserts of Australia. It is extremely adapted to a burrowing way of life. It has large, shovel-like forepaws and silky fur, which helps it move easily. It also lacks complete eyes as it has little need for them. It feeds on earthworms and larvae.[5]
Although the southern marsupial mole was probably known by Aboriginal Australians for thousands of years, the first specimen examined by the scientific community was collected in 1888. Stockman W. Coulthard made the discovery on Idracowra Pastoral Lease in the Northern Territory by following some unusual prints that lead him to the animal lying under a tussock.[6] Not knowing what to do with the strange creature, he wrapped it in a kerosene soaked rag, placed it in a revolver cartridge box and forwarded it to E. C. Stirling, the Director of the South Australian Museum. Due to the poor transportation conditions of the time, the specimen reached its destination in a badly decomposed state. Hence, Stirling was unable to find any evidence of the pouch or epipubic bones and decided the creature was not a marsupial.[7]
Nineteenth century scientists believed that marsupials and eutherians had evolved from the same primitive ancestor and were looking for a living specimen that would serve as the missing link. Because the marsupial mole closely resembled the golden moles of Africa, some scientists concluded that the two were related and that they had found the proof. This, however, is not the case, as became obvious by examining better-preserved specimens that had a marsupial pouch.[7] The striking similarities of the two species are, in fact, the result of convergent evolution.
Although the family Notoryctidae is poorly represented in the fossil record there is evidence of at least one distinct genus Yalkaparidon, in the early Miocene sediments in the Riversleigh deposit in northern Australia.[8]
Due to their highly specialized morphology and the fact that notoryctids share many common characteristics with other marsupials, there has been much debate surrounding their phylogeny. However, recent molecular studies indicate that notoryctids are not closely related to any of the other marsupial families and should be placed in an order of their own, Notoryctemorphia.[9][10]
Furthermore, molecular data suggests that Notoryctemorphia separated from other marsupials around 64 million years ago.[11] Although at this time South America, Antarctica and Australia were still joined the order evolved in Australia for at least 40-50 million years. The Riversleigh fossil material suggests that Notoryctes was already well adapted for burrowing and probably lived in the rainforest that covered much of Australia at that time. The increase in aridity at the end of Tertiary was likely one of the key contributing factors to the development of the current highly specialized form of marsupial mole.[6] The marsupial mole had been burrowing long before the Australian deserts came into being.[12]
The southern marsupial mole is small in size, with a head and body length varying from 121 to 159 mm, a tail length of 21–26 mm and a weight of 40-70 g. The body is covered with short, dense, silky fur with a pale cream to white color often tinted by the iron oxides from the soil which gives it a reddish chestnut brown tint. It has a light brownish pink nose and mouth and no vibrissae.[13]
The cone shaped head merges directly with the body, and there is no obvious neck region. The limbs are short and powerful, and digits III and IV of the manus have large spade-like claws. The dentition varies with individuals and, because the molars have a root of only one third of the length, it has been assumed that moles cannot deal with hard food substances.[6] The dorsal surface of the rostrum and the back of the tail have no fur and the skin is heavily keratinized. There is no external evidence of the eyes, and the optic nerve is absent. It does, however, have a pigment layer where the eyes should be, probably a vestige of the retina. Both lachrymal glands and Jacobson's organ are well developed, and it has been suggested that the former plays a role in lubricating the nasal passages and Jacobson's organ.
The external ear openings are covered with fur and do not have a pinnae. The nostrils are small vertical slits right below the shield-like rostrum. Although the brain has been regarded as very primitive and represents the "lowliest marsupial brain", the olfactory bulbs and the rubercula olfactoria are very well developed. This seems to suggest that the olfactory sense plays an important role in the marsupial moles' life, as it would be expected for a creature living in an environment lacking visual stimuli. The middle ear seems to be adapted for the reception of low-frequency sounds.[13]
In an example of convergent evolution, the southern marsupial mole resembles the Namib Desert golden mole (Eremitalpa granti namibensis) and other specialised fossorial animals in having a low and unstable body temperature, ranging between 15-30 °C. It does not have an unusually low resting metabolic rate, and the metabolic rate of burrowing is 60 times higher than that of walking or running. Because it lives underground, where the temperature is considerably lower than at the surface, the southern marsupial mole does not seem to have any special adaptations to desert life. It is not known whether it drinks water or not, but due to the irregularity of rainfall it is assumed that it does not.[12]
The habitat of the southern marsupial mole is not well known, and is generally based on scattered records. It has been often recorded in sandy dunes or flats, usually where spinifex is present. Its habitat seems to be restricted to areas where the sand is soft, as it cannot tunnel through harder materials.[6] Although little is known about its exact distribution, sightings, aboriginal informants and museum records indicate that it lives in the central sandy desert regions of Western Australia, northern South Australia and the Northern Territory.[14] Recent studies indicate that its habitat also includes Great Victoria and Gibson Deserts.[15]
Due to the lack of any field studies regarding the marsupial moles, there is little known about their behavior. Observations of captive animals are limited since most of the moles do not survive much longer than a month after capture.
It sometimes wanders above the surface where traces of several animals have been found. While most evidence indicates that it does this seldom and moves just a few meters before burrowing back underground, on some occasions multiple tracks were found suggesting that one or more animals have moved above ground for several hours. According to Aboriginal sources, marsupial moles may surface at any time of day, but seem to prefer to do so after rain and in the cooler season.[6]
Captive animals have been observed to feed above ground and then return underground to sleep. Occasionally it has been recorded to suddenly "faint" on the surface without waking up for several hours until disturbed.[16]
Above the ground it moves in a sinuous fashion, using its powerful forelimbs to haul the body over the surface and its hind limbs to push forward. The forelimbs are extended forward in unison with the opposite hind limb. Moles move about the surface with frantic haste but little speed, as one observer once likened it to a "Volkswagen Beetle heaving its way through the sand".[7]
While burrowing, the southern marsupial mole does not make permanent tunnels, but the sand caves in and tunnels back-fill as the animal moves along. For this reason its burrowing style has been compared to "swimming through the sand”". The only way its tunnels can be identified is as a small oval shape of loose sand. Although it spends most of its active time 20-100 cm below the surface, tunneling horizontally or at shallow angles, it sometimes for no apparent reason turns suddenly and burrows vertically to depths of up to 2.5 meters.[17]
Although most food sources are likely to occur at depths of approximately 50 cm from the surface, the temperature of these environments varies greatly from less than 15°C during winter to over 35°C during summer. While one of the captive moles was observed shivering when the temperature dropped under 16°C, it seems probable that moles can select the temperature of their environment by burrowing at different depths.[6]
Little is known about the southern marsupial mole's diet, and all information is based on the gut content of preserved animals and on observations made on captive specimens. All evidence seems to suggest that the mole is mainly insectivorous, preferring insect eggs, larvae and pupae to the adults.[18] Based on observations made on captive animals, it seems that one of the favorite food choices was beetle larvae, especially Scarabaeidae.[16] Because burrowing requires high energy expenditure it seems unlikely that the mole searches for its food in this prey impoverished environment, and suggests that it probably feeds within nests. It has been also recorded to eat adult insects, seeds and lizards. Below the desert sands of Australia, the marsupial mole searches for burrowing insects and small reptiles. Instead of building a tunnel, it "swims" through the ground, allowing the sand to collapse behind it.[6]
There is little known about the social and reproductive behavior of these animals, but all evidence seems to suggest that it leads a solitary life. There are no traces of large burrows where more than one individual might meet and communicate. Although it is not known how the male locates the female, it is assumed that they do so using their highly developed olfactory sense.[13]
The fact that the middle ear seems to be morphologically suited for capturing low frequency sounds, and that moles produce high pitched vocalizations when handled, indicates that this kind of sound that propagates more easily underground may be used as a form of communication.[6]
The southern marsupial mole was known for thousands of years to the aborigines and was part of their mythology. It was associated with certain sites and dreaming trails such as Uluru and the Anangu-Pitjantjatjara Lands. Aborigines regarded the creature with sympathy, probably due to its harmless nature, and it was only eaten in hard times. Aboriginal people have good tracking skills and generally cooperate with researchers in teaching them these skills and help finding specimens. Their involvement is instrumental in gathering information about the species’ habitat and behavior.[6]
Historical records suggest that the southern marsupial mole was relatively common in the late 19th century and early 20th century. There was a large trade in marsupial mole skins in the Finke River region between 1900 and 1920. Large numbers of aborigines arrived at the trading post with 5-6 pelts each for sale to trade for food and other commodities. It is estimated that hundreds to several thousand skins were traded at these meetings, and that at the time the mole was relatively common.[7]
So little is known about the southern marsupial mole that it is difficult to assess its exact distribution and how it varied over the last decades. However circumstantial evidence suggests that their numbers are dwindling. Although the decreasing acquisition rate is difficult to interpret due to the chance nature of the findings, there are reasons for concern. About 90% of medium-sized marsupials in arid Australia have become threatened due to cat and fox predation. A recent study indicates that remains of marsupial moles have been found in 5% of the cats and foxes faecal pellets examined.[19] Moles are also sensitive to changes in the availability of their food caused by changing fire regimes and the impact of herbivores. The southern marsupial mole is currently listed as endangered by the IUCN.[2] Efforts to protect this species focus on advocating for maintaining a healthy population of moles to better understand their biology and behavior, and for conducting field studies to monitor the species distribution and abundance with the help of Aborigines.[6]
The southern marsupial mole (Notoryctes typhlops), also known as the itjaritjari (pronounced [ˈɪɟɐrɪɟɐrɪ]) or itjari-itjari, is a mole-like marsupial found in the western central deserts of Australia. It is extremely adapted to a burrowing way of life. It has large, shovel-like forepaws and silky fur, which helps it move easily. It also lacks complete eyes as it has little need for them. It feeds on earthworms and larvae.
Notoryctes typhlops skeleton
