dcsimg

Distribution in Egypt

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Nile region, oases, Mediterranean region, Egyptian desert and Sinai.

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Global Distribution

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Mediterranean region, Sinai, eastwards to Myanmar, introduced elsewhere.

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Habitat

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Planted along water-courses, rarely occurring as a native.

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Life Expectancy

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Perennial.

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Comments

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A form with striped leaves (var. versiocolor Stokes) cultivated in Taiwan and Japan.
[Distinguished by general appearance from two other large grasses with plumelike panicles: Neyraudia reynaudiana (Kunth) Keng., Burma reed or silk reed, and Phragmites australis (Cav.) Steud. The following characters will also separate the three: Phragmites has naked lemmas; Arundo has hairy lemmas and a naked rachilla; Neyraudia has naked lemmas and a hairy rachilla. All three species grow around canals.]
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Gramineae (Poaceae) in Flora of Taiwan Vol. 0 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Poaceae in Flora of Taiwan @ eFloras.org
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Chang-Sheng Kuoh
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Comments

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Forms with variegated leaf blades are sometimes cultivated in gar-dens, e.g., var. versicolor (Miller) Stokes (Arundo versicolor Miller), with longitudinally green- and white-striped leaf blades. Arundo donax var. coleotricha refers to a wild variant with pubescent leaf sheaths.

The culms have many uses, including light construction, basket making, matting, musical pipes, and ornaments.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of China Vol. 22: 448 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Comments

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Arundo donax is a plant of wet habitats but Bor (Grasses Burma Ceyl. Ind. Pak. 415) stated that it will grow in dryish places when once established. Cattle will browse its young leaves but it is not of much account as a fodder grass. In Europe it is extensively cut to make mats, trays and baskets and the Romans used the stems for pens. It is sometimes used for making paper but is commercially of less value than Phragmites australis.

Considerable difficulty may be experienced in distinguishing immature plants of Arundo, Neyraudia and Phragmites, and dissecting the spikelets will be of little use. Phragmites can be distinguished by the silky beard at the bases of the lowest panicle branches which is absent from the other two genera. The ligule of Arundo is membranous while that of Phragmites and Neyraudia is a fringe of hairs. The leaves of Arundo are very much broader than in the other genera and are conspicuously cordate or rounded at the base.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 21 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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Description

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Tall coarse perennial tufted with short thick rhizome. Culm about 1-3 cm in diameter. Blades 2-4 cm wide, the margins scabrid; ligule 2 mm long, fimbriate on upper margin, siliceous on dorsal side; sheath usually longer than the internode, glabrous or subdensely pubescent (var. coleotricha Hackel). Panicle ample, 30-70 cm long, axiss strigose at nodes. Spikelets 3-4-flowered or more, terete, 10-15 mm long; glumes chartaceous, lanceolate, siliceous apex with short awn or acute; the lower glume about 12 mm long, 3-5-nerved, rarely 4-nerved, covered with a few silky hairs on the backside; the uppe glume about 10 mm long, 3-5-nerved; lemma 10-12 mm long, 5-nerved middle nerve prolonged into a 3 mm long awn, 2 lateral awn slightly cuspidate, basal part densely covered with long silky hairs which are nearly as long as the lemma; palea about 5 mm long, 2-keeled, the margins ciliate, apex truncate; lodicules 2, truncate, nerved, stamens 3. anther 2.5 mm long.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Gramineae (Poaceae) in Flora of Taiwan Vol. 0 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Poaceae in Flora of Taiwan @ eFloras.org
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Chang-Sheng Kuoh
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Description

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Robust reed from a thick knotty rhizome. Culms very stout, erect, 2–6 m tall, 1–1.5 cm in diam., unbranched or with bamboolike clusters of slender branches from nodes. Leaf sheaths longer than internodes, usually glabrous except long pilose at mouth; leaf blades 30–60 × 2–5 cm, margins scabrous, tapering to a slender filiform apex; ligule 0.7–1.5 mm. Panicle 30–60 cm, dense, usually purplish; branches 10–25 cm, ascending. Spikelets 10–15 mm, florets 2–5; glumes narrowly lanceolate, 8–12 mm, 3–5-veined, lower glume acute, upper glume sharply acuminate; lemmas linear-lanceolate, 8–11 mm, 3–7-veined, dorsal hairs 5–6 mm, apex minutely bidentate with 1–2 mm awnlet from sinus, lateral veins also shortly extended; palea 1/2 length of lemma body. Fl. and fr. Oct–Dec.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of China Vol. 22: 448 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Description

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Perennial, with creeping woody rhizomes. Culms erect, up to 5 m high. Leaf-blades conspicuously distichous, linear-lanceolate, rounded or cordate at the base, 30-60 cm long, 2.5-5 cm wide, glabrous, smooth, long-attenuate at the tip. Panicle 30.60 cm long and 5.8(10) cm wide. Spikelets 10-15 mm long; glumes subequal, lanceolate to narrowly lanceolate, (8-)10-13 mm long, the lower a little shorter than the upper; lemmas lanceolate, (6)8.5-13 mm long, 3-5-nerved, 3 of the nerves produced as short aristae, hairy all over the back below the middle with hairs up to 7 mm long.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 21 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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Distribution

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Mediterranean region, tropical Asia. Introduced into New World.
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Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal Vol. 0 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal @ eFloras.org
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K.K. Shrestha, J.R. Press and D.A. Sutton
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Distribution

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Distribution: Pakistan (Baluchistan, Punjab, N.W.F.P. & Kashmir); Mediterranean region eastwards to Burma; North Africa; introduced into many parts of the World.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 21 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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Elevation Range

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2100-2440 m
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Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal Vol. 0 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Annotated Checklist of the Flowering Plants of Nepal @ eFloras.org
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K.K. Shrestha, J.R. Press and D.A. Sutton
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Flower/Fruit

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Fl. & Fr. Per.: June - December.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of Pakistan Vol. 0: 21 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of Pakistan @ eFloras.org
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S. I. Ali & M. Qaiser
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Habitat & Distribution

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River banks and other damp places, but it will also grow when planted in dryish habitats. Fujian, Guangdong, Guizhou, Hainan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang [Afghanistan, Bhutan, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kazakhstan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Vietnam; N Africa, C and SW Asia, S Europe; widely introduced elsewhere].
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
bibliographic citation
Flora of China Vol. 22: 448 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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eFloras.org
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Synonym

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Aira bengalensis (Retzius) J. F. Gmelin; Amphidonax bengalensis (Retzius) Nees ex Steudel (1854), not Roxburgh ex Nees (1836); Arundo bengalensis Retzius; A. coleotricha (Hackel) Honda; A. donax var. coleotricha Hackel; Donax arundinaceus P. Beauvois; D. bengalensis (Retzius) P. Beauvois; Scolochloa donax (Linnaeus) Gaudin.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of China Vol. 22: 448 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Flora of China @ eFloras.org
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Wu Zhengyi, Peter H. Raven & Hong Deyuan
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Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
giant reed

arundo grass

donax
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bibliographic citation
McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Description

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the term: graminoid

The following description of giant reed provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g., [40,53,56,57,62,63,69,77,103,105,107]). Giant reed and common reed, a native grass distributed across most of the United States, can be difficult to distinguish. Proper identification of giant reed is essential before implementing control measures [24].

Giant reed is a tall, erect, perennial graminoid. It is the largest member of the genus and among the largest of grasses, growing 6 to 30 feet (2-8 m) tall [11,28,74]. The culms reach a diameter of 0.4 to 1.6 inches (1-4 cm) and commonly branch during the second year of growth. Culms are hollow, with walls 2 to 7 mm thick and divided by partitions at the nodes. The nodes vary in length from 5 to 12 inches (12-30 cm). Leaves are conspicuously 2-ranked, 2 to 3.2 inches (5-8 cm) broad at the base and tapering to a fine point. Bases of the leaves are cordate and more-or-less hairy-tufted, persisting long after the blades have fallen [74]. Giant reed has large plume-like panicles. Spikelets are several-flowered with upper florets successively smaller [33].

Giant reed has thick, knotty rhizomes [103] and deeply penetrating roots [74]. Once established, it tends to form large, continuous, clonal root masses, sometimes covering several acres. These root masses can be more than 3 feet (1 m) thick (review by [11]).

Although giant reed has been widely cultivated for centuries, little information on its biology and ecology has been published. As of this writing (2004), more research is needed to understand the biology and ecology of giant reed.

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bibliographic citation
McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Distribution

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: cover, forest, hydrophyte

Though accounts in the literature vary, a review by Bell [11] indicates giant reed is thought to be native in eastern Asia, and it has been cultivated throughout Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East for thousands of years. In North America, it was intentionally introduced from the Mediterranean to the Los Angeles area in California in the early 1800s (Robbins and others 1951, as cited in [49])[28], and has been widely planted throughout the warmer states as an ornamental and for erosion control along drainage canals [49,74]. It has escaped cultivation as far north as Virginia and Missouri, and abundant wild populations occur along the Rio Grande River [74] and along ditches, streams, and seeps in arid and cis montane regions of California (Robbins and others 1951, as cited in [49]).

According to Bell [11], giant reed is invasive throughout the warmer coastal freshwaters of the United States from Maryland westward to northern California. Wunderlin [107] recognizes the variety versicolor as occurring in Florida, and Jones and others [53] describe that variety as a cultivar. The literature contains specific references to the occurrence of giant reed in the 4 provinces of Mexico listed below [2,61,82,98]. Giant reed is likely present in other areas of Mexico.

Plants database provides a state distribution map of giant reed in the United States.

The following lists include North American ecosystems, habitat types, and forest and range cover types in which giant reed is known or thought to be invasive, as well as some that may be invaded by giant reed following disturbances in which vegetation is killed and/or removed and/or soil is disturbed (e.g. cultivation, fire, grazing, herbicide application, flooding). Giant reed is a hydrophyte and riparian areas or wetlands within these habitats could be subject to invasion by giant reed even if the habitat itself is not considered a wetland. For example, Nixon and Willett [71] list giant reed as a plant found within the Trinity River Basin in Texas. Habitats within the basin include cross timbers and prairies, blackland prairies, post oak (Quercus stellata) savannah, pineywoods, and Gulf prairies and marshes.

These lists are not necessarily exhaustive. More information is needed regarding incidents and examples of particular ecosystems and plant communities where giant reed is invasive.

license
cc-publicdomain
bibliographic citation
McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Fire Ecology

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: fire regime, fire severity, forest, frequency, fuel, fuel moisture, grass/fire cycle, presence, severity, shrub, wildfire, woodland

Fire adaptations: As of this writing (2004), information on fire adaptations of giant reed are limited to anecdotal accounts and assertions based on known biological attributes. Giant reed's extensive rhizomes are likely to survive and sprout after fire removes top growth. Reviews (e.g., [11,28,95]) provide anecdotal evidence that indicates that sprouts emerge from rhizomes of giant reed soon after fire and grow quickly. Rieger and Kreager [80] observed rapid sprouting and growth of giant reed after removing top-growth by cutting (see Growth).

FIRE REGIMES: With the exception of California, almost no published information is available that describes the types of plant communities in which giant reed is invasive, although giant reed generally occurs in riparian and wetland areas throughout its wide distribution. Characteristics of riparian zones and wetlands vary substantially throughout this range, and FIRE REGIMES are not well described for many of these communities. A review by Dwire and Kauffman [30] discusses how differences in topography, microclimate, geomorphology, and vegetation may lead to differences in fire behavior and fire effects between riparian areas and surrounding uplands. Riparian areas may act as a fire barrier or a fire corridor, depending on topography, weather, and fuel characteristics [30]. Recovery of riparian vegetation depends on fire severity and postfire hydrology [22].

Dwire and Kauffman [30] indicate that riparian microclimates are generally characterized by cooler air temperature, lower daily maximum air temperature, and higher relative humidity than the adjacent uplands, contributing to higher fuel moisture content and presumably lowering the intensity, severity, and frequency of fire in riparian areas compared to adjacent uplands. Similarly, Bell [11] suggests that fire is uncommon in riparian areas in southern California, and that native riparian species are not well adapted to frequent or severe fire. In this area, lightning-ignited wildfires usually occur in late fall, winter, and early spring when riparian vegetation is typically moist and green and would act as a fire break [11]. In southern California, riparian areas invaded by giant reed often occur within grasslands or chaparral shrublands. The limited available research from such ecosystems suggests longer fire return intervals and lower-severity burns in riparian areas relative to adjacent upland vegetation [30]. Human-caused wildfires often occur during the dry months of the year (July through October) in southern California, when drier conditions make riparian vegetation more vulnerable to fire damage [11].

Information regarding the effects of giant reed on fuels and fire regime characteristics in plant communities in which it is invasive in North America is limited to accounts from southern California. Although evidence is entirely anecdotal, several accounts (e.g., [11,20,29,84,95]) describe changes in fuels, fire characteristics, and/or postfire plant community response in southern California riparian areas invaded by giant reed that are suggestive of an invasive grass/fire cycle. Because giant reed grows quickly and produces large amounts of biomass [74] in dense stands described as having "large quantities of dry material" [95], it is conceivable that its invasion introduces novel fuel properties to the invaded ecosystem. It thus has the potential to alter fire behavior and the fire regime (sensu [14,19]). Giant reed is among the most productive of plant communities and can produce over 20 tons of aboveground biomass per hectare under some conditions [74]. Scott [84] observes that in the Santa Ana Basin in southern California, the invasion of giant reed into riparian corridors has doubled and in some areas tripled the amount of fuels available for wildfire.

According to Bell [9,11] giant reed is "extremely flammable" throughout most of the year, and once established increases the probability of wildfire occurrence and the intensity of fires that do occur. This observation is upheld by manager and newspaper accounts of intense wildfires fueled by giant reed in Riverside County (as cited in [95]), the Santa Ana River drainage (J. Wright, personal communication in [87]), and the Russian River further north [29]. For example, a fire in Soledad Canyon in January 1991 was said to have "burned aggressively through the riparian vegetation" due to dry conditions from a prolonged drought coupled with the presence of dried stands of giant reed (Joyce, personal observation cited in [95]). Dudley [29] describes destructive fires fueled by continuous, 15-foot-high colonies of giant reed along the Santa Ana River, noting that "such flammable vegetation is now changing riparian corridors from barriers to the spread of fires into wicks that carry fire up and downstream, into highway bridges or crowns of native, fire-sensitive trees". See Fire hazard potential for more information on this topic.

As of this writing (2004) no research is available on postfire response of giant reed; however, observations indicate that in most circumstances fire cannot kill the underground rhizomes and probably favors giant reed regeneration over native riparian species (e.g., Gaffney and Cushman 1998, cited in [28]). One week after a fire in Soledad Canyon in January 1991, for example, burned giant reed colonies were sprouting from their extensive rhizomes. Many sprouts were over 2 feet (0.6 m) tall within 2 weeks after the fire, even though January is normally the dormant period for giant reed. Most willow, mulefat, and aquatic plants were also burned, and many cottonwoods were scorched. The aquatic plants in the stream were the only plants other than giant reed that were recovering within the first few weeks of burning. In this way, fire gives giant reed an advantage over native riparian plants, and its dominance in the area has increased dramatically (Joyce, personal observation in [95]). In this sense, Bell [11] suggests that riparian communities invaded by giant reed can change from "flood-defined" to "fire-defined" communities, as has occurred on the Santa Ana River. This grass/fire cycle would thus result in river corridors dominated by stands of giant reed with little biological diversity [11].

As mentioned above, there is little research regarding FIRE REGIMES and fire return intervals in riparian areas. However, riparian communities may be influenced by the FIRE REGIMES of adjacent and surrounding plant communities. The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where riparian vegetation may include giant reed, though its invasiveness in many of these communities has not yet been demonstrated. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) silver maple-American elm Acer saccharinum-Ulmus americana < 35 to 200 sugar maple Acer saccharum > 1,000 sugar maple-basswood Acer saccharum-Tilia americana > 1,000 [101] California chaparral Adenostoma and/or Arctostaphylos spp. 72] bluestem prairie Andropogon gerardii var. gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 59,72] Nebraska sandhills prairie Andropogon gerardii var. paucipilus-Schizachyrium scoparium < 10 bluestem-Sacahuista prairie Andropogon littoralis-Spartina spartinae 72] silver sagebrush steppe Artemisia cana 5-45 [46,76,106] sagebrush steppe Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [72] basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [81] mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [5,16,66] Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (40**) [100,109] coastal sagebrush Artemisia californica < 35 to < 100 saltbush-greasewood Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus 72] mangrove Avicennia nitida-Rhizophora mangle 35-200 [70] desert grasslands Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica 5-100  [72] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. < 35 blue grama-buffalo grass Bouteloua gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides 72,106] grama-galleta steppe Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii < 35 to < 100 blue grama-tobosa prairie Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis mutica 72] cheatgrass Bromus tectorum 75,104] California montane chaparral Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. 50-100 [72] sugarberry-America elm-green ash Celtis laevigata-Ulmus americana-Fraxinus pennsylvanica 101] paloverde-cactus shrub Cercidium microphyllum/Opuntia spp. 72] curlleaf mountain-mahogany* Cercocarpus ledifolius 13-1,000 [6,83] mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub Cercocarpus ledifolius-Quercus gambelii 72] Atlantic white-cedar Chamaecyparis thyoides 35 to > 200  [101] blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima < 35 to < 100 Arizona cypress Cupressus arizonica < 35 to 200 northern cordgrass prairie Distichlis spicata-Spartina spp. 1-3 [72] beech-sugar maple Fagus spp.-Acer saccharum > 1,000 [101] California steppe Festuca-Danthonia spp. 72,89] black ash Fraxinus nigra 101] juniper-oak savanna Juniperus ashei-Quercus virginiana < 35 Ashe juniper Juniperus ashei < 35 western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70 Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum 72] cedar glades Juniperus virginiana 3-22 [43,72] creosotebush Larrea tridentata < 35 to < 100 Ceniza shrub Larrea tridentata-Leucophyllum frutescens-Prosopis glandulosa 72] yellow-poplar Liriodendron tulipifera 101] Everglades Mariscus jamaicensis < 10 melaleuca Melaleuca quinquenervia 70] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii 72,76,106] southeastern spruce-fir Picea-Abies spp. 35 to > 200 [101] Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to > 200 pine-cypress forest Pinus-Cupressus spp. 4] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 72] Mexican pinyon Pinus cembroides 20-70  [67,92] shortleaf pine Pinus echinata 2-15 shortleaf pine-oak Pinus echinata-Quercus spp. 101] Colorado pinyon Pinus edulis 10-400+ [36,41,58,72] slash pine Pinus elliottii 3-8 slash pine-hardwood Pinus elliottii-variable < 35 sand pine Pinus elliottii var. elliottii 25-45 [101] South Florida slash pine Pinus elliottii var. densa 1-5 longleaf-slash pine Pinus palustris-P. elliottii 1-4 [70,101] longleaf pine-scrub oak Pinus palustris-Quercus spp. 6-10 [101] pitch pine Pinus rigida 6-25 [15,44] pocosin Pinus serotina 3-8 pond pine Pinus serotina 3-8 eastern white pine Pinus strobus 35-200 eastern white pine-eastern hemlock Pinus strobus-Tsuga canadensis 35-200 loblolly pine Pinus taeda 3-8 loblolly-shortleaf pine Pinus taeda-P. echinata 10 to < 35 Virginia pine Pinus virginiana 10 to < 35 Virginia pine-oak Pinus virginiana-Quercus spp. 10 to < 35 sycamore-sweetgum-American elm Platanus occidentalis-Liquidambar styraciflua-Ulmus americana 101] galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe Pleuraphis jamesii-Aristida purpurea < 35 to < 100 eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides 72] mesquite Prosopis glandulosa 64,72] mesquite-buffalo grass Prosopis glandulosa-Buchloe dactyloides < 35 Texas savanna Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa 72] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [3,4] California oakwoods Quercus spp. 4] oak-hickory Quercus-Carya spp. 101] oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. 72] oak-gum-cypress Quercus-Nyssa-spp.-Taxodium distichum 35 to > 200 [70] southeastern oak-pine Quercus-Pinus spp. 101] coast live oak Quercus agrifolia 2-75 [42] white oak-black oak-northern red oak Quercus alba-Q. velutina-Q. rubra 101] canyon live oak Quercus chrysolepis <35 to 200 blue oak-foothills pine Quercus douglasii-P. sabiniana 4] northern pin oak Quercus ellipsoidalis 101] Oregon white oak Quercus garryana 4] bear oak Quercus ilicifolia 101] California black oak Quercus kelloggii 5-30 [72] bur oak Quercus macrocarpa 101] oak savanna Quercus macrocarpa/Andropogon gerardii-Schizachyrium scoparium 2-14 [72,101] shinnery Quercus mohriana chestnut oak Quercus prinus 3-8 post oak-blackjack oak Quercus stellata-Q. marilandica < 10 black oak Quercus velutina < 35 live oak Quercus virginiana 10 to101] interior live oak Quercus wislizenii 4] cabbage palmetto-slash pine Sabal palmetto-Pinus elliottii 70,101] blackland prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Nassella leucotricha < 10 Fayette prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Buchloe dactyloides 101] little bluestem-grama prairie Schizachyrium scoparium-Bouteloua spp. < 35 tule marshes Scirpus and/or Typha spp. 72] redwood Sequoia sempervirens 5-200 [4,35,90] southern cordgrass prairie Spartina alterniflora 1-3 [72] baldcypress Taxodium distichum var. distichum 100 to > 300 pondcypress Taxodium distichum var. nutans 70] eastern hemlock-yellow birch Tsuga canadensis-Betula alleghaniensis > 200 [101] western hemlock-Sitka spruce Tsuga heterophylla-Picea sitchensis > 200 [4] elm-ash-cottonwood Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp. 27,101] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species review
**mean
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info for the term: hydrophyte

RAUNKIAER [78] LIFE FORM:
Hydrophyte
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Habitat characteristics

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More info for the terms: frequency, hydrophyte

 
Although giant reed has a wide distribution in North America, details about site characteristics where it is invasive are limited. Most available information on its biology and ecology in North America comes from reviews and studies in California.

Giant reed is a hydrophyte, and grows best where water tables are near or at the soil surface [79]. Giant reed growth may be retarded by lack of moisture during its first year, but drought causes no serious damage in patches 2 to 3 years old [74]. In California, it typically grows along lakes, streams, drains and other wet sites [11]. It is well adapted for establishment and spread in riparian areas with regular flood cycles (see Asexual regeneration). In California, it is most commonly associated with waterways with altered hydrologic regimes (e.g., dams) and/or disturbed riparian vegetation, but can also establish in the understory of native riparian vegetation [28]. In southern California giant reed reaches peak abundance downstream along major rivers in coastal basins, and has generally not spread up the steep, narrow canyons that characterize lower montane areas [87]. It establishes primarily on streamside microsites, but can spread beyond the zone occupied by native riparian vegetation [24,28,102], and can occur on dry riverbanks far from permanent water [28]. A study along the San Luis Rey River in San Diego County found the highest concentration of giant reed colonies within 24 feet (7.3 m) of the river. The authors suggest frequency and magnitude of river flow contribute to this pattern of distribution [80].

Giant reed tolerates excessive salinity and periods of excessive moisture [74]. In South Carolina, it has invaded abandoned rice fields and grows in brackish water [86]. In a greenhouse experiment designed to test the tolerance of giant reed to salt stress, Peck [73] determined giant reed can grow in saline conditions and may be able to invade and persist in salt marshes.

Reviews (e.g., [24,28,49,74]) report that giant reed grows on a variety of soil types including coarse sands, gravelly soil, heavy clays, and river sediments; however, the sources and context of this information are unclear. Stephenson and Calcarone [87] suggest that it requires "well-developed" soils to become established, while DiTomaso [24] indicates that giant reed is "best developed in poor, sandy soil and in sunny situations," and survives in areas with pH values between 5 and 8.7. Purdue [74] states that its growth is most vigorous in well-drained soils where moisture is abundant.

Giant reed occurs in areas with annual precipitation ranging from 12 to 158 inches (300-4,000 mm) [24]. According to Purdue [74], it is a warm-temperate or subtropical species, and is able to survive very low temperatures when dormant, but is subject to serious damage by frosts that occur after initiation of spring growth.

In California, giant reed is apparently restricted to elevations below 1,640 feet (500 m) [47]. However, Perdue [74] reports it grows at altitudes to 8,000 feet (2,438 m) in the Himalayas.

Elevation ranges reported for giant reed in other areas include:

Nevada:    2,500 to 4,000 feet (760-1,220 m) [56]
New Mexico:    4,000 to 4,500 feet (1,220-1,370 m) [62]
Utah:    2,790 to 4,100 feet (850-1,250 m) [103]

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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Habitat: Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the terms: cover, swamp

SAF COVER TYPES [32]:





40 Post oak-blackjack oak

42 Bur oak

43 Bear oak

46 Eastern redcedar

51 White pine-chestnut oak

52 White oak-black oak-northern red oak

53 White oak

57 Yellow-poplar

58 Yellow-poplar-eastern hemlock

59 Yellow-poplar-white oak-northern red oak

60 Beech-sugar maple

61 River birch-sycamore

63 Cottonwood

64 Sassafras-persimmon

65 Pin oak-sweetgum

66 Ashe juniper-redberry (Pinchot) juniper

67 Mohrs (shin) oak

68 Mesquite

69 Sand pine

70 Longleaf pine

71 Longleaf pine-scrub oak

72 Southern scrub oak

73 Southern redcedar

74 Cabbage palmetto

75 Shortleaf pine

76 Shortleaf pine-oak

78 Virginia pine-oak

79 Virginia pine

80 Loblolly pine-shortleaf pine

81 Loblolly pine

82 Loblolly pine-hardwood

83 Longleaf pine-slash pine

84 Slash pine

85 Slash pine-hardwood

87 Sweetgum-yellow-poplar

88 Willow oak-water oak-diamondleaf (laurel) oak

89 Live oak

91 Swamp chestnut oak-cherrybark oak

92 Sweetgum-willow oak

93 Sugarberry-American elm-green ash

94 Sycamore-sweetgum-American elm

95 Black willow

96 Overcup oak-water hickory

97 Atlantic white-cedar

98 Pond pine

100 Pondcypress

101 Baldcypress

102 Baldcypress-tupelo

103 Water tupelo-swamp tupelo

104 Sweetbay-swamp tupelo-redbay

105 Tropical hardwoods

106 Mangrove

110 Black oak

111 South Florida slash pine

221 Red alder

222 Black cottonwood-willow

232 Redwood

235 Cottonwood-willow

239 Pinyon-juniper

240 Arizona cypress

241 Western live oak

242 Mesquite

243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

246 California black oak

249 Canyon live oak

250 Blue oak-foothills pine

255 California coast live oak
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Habitat: Ecosystem

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

More info for the term: shrub

ECOSYSTEMS [38]:




FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine

FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine

FRES14 Oak-pine

FRES15 Oak-hickory

FRES16 Oak-gum-cypress

FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood

FRES27 Redwood

FRES28 Western hardwoods

FRES29 Sagebrush

FRES30 Desert shrub

FRES31 Shinnery

FRES32 Texas savanna

FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES36 Mountain grasslands

FRES37 Mountain meadows

FRES38 Plains grasslands

FRES39 Prairie

FRES40 Desert grasslands

FRES41 Wet grasslands

FRES42 Annual grasslands
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Habitat: Plant Associations

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the terms: forest, shrub, woodland

KUCHLER [60] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:





K006 Redwood forest

K009 Pine-cypress forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K027 Mesquite bosques

K031 Oak-juniper woodland

K032 Transition between K031 and K037

K033 Chaparral

K034 Montane chaparral

K035 Coastal sagebrush

K036 Mosaic of K030 and K035

K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub

K038 Great Basin sagebrush

K039 Blackbrush

K040 Saltbush-greasewood

K041 Creosote bush

K042 Creosote bush-bur sage

K043 Paloverde-cactus shrub

K044 Creosote bush-tarbush

K045 Ceniza shrub

K048 California steppe

K049 Tule marshes

K053 Grama-galleta steppe

K054 Grama-tobosa prairie

K057 Galleta-threeawn shrubsteppe

K058 Grama-tobosa shrubsteppe

K059 Trans-Pecos shrub savanna

K060 Mesquite savanna

K061 Mesquite-acacia savanna

K062 Mesquite-live oak savanna

K065 Grama-buffalo grass

K069 Bluestem-grama prairie

K070 Sandsage-bluestem prairie

K071 Shinnery

K072 Sea oats prairie

K074 Bluestem prairie

K076 Blackland prairie

K077 Bluestem-sacahuista prairie

K078 Southern cordgrass prairie

K079 Palmetto prairie

K080 Marl everglades

K082 Mosaic of K074 and K100

K083 Cedar glades

K084 Cross Timbers

K085 Mesquite-buffalo grass

K086 Juniper-oak savanna

K087 Mesquite-oak savanna

K088 Fayette prairie

K089 Black Belt

K090 Live oak-sea oats

K091 Cypress savanna

K092 Everglades

K098 Northern floodplain forest

K100 Oak-hickory forest

K105 Mangrove

K111 Oak-hickory-pine

K112 Southern mixed forest

K113 Southern floodplain forest

K114 Pocosin

K115 Sand pine scrub

K116 Subtropical pine forest
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the terms: association, cover, forb, fresh, grassland, hardwood, marsh, shrub, shrubland, vine, woodland

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [85]:




201 Blue oak woodland

202 Coast live oak woodland

203 Riparian woodland

204 North coastal shrub

205 Coastal sage shrub

206 Chamise chaparral

207 Scrub oak mixed chaparral

208 Ceanothus mixed chaparral

209 Montane shrubland

210 Bitterbrush

211 Creosote bush scrub

212 Blackbush

213 Alpine grassland

214 Coastal prairie

215 Valley grassland

216 Montane meadows

217 Wetlands

401 Basin big sagebrush

402 Mountain big sagebrush

403 Wyoming big sagebrush

405 Black sagebrush

406 Low sagebrush

408 Other sagebrush types

409 Tall forb

410 Alpine rangeland

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

413 Gambel oak

414 Salt desert shrub

415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany

416 True mountain-mahogany

417 Littleleaf mountain-mahogany

418 Bigtooth maple

419 Bittercherry

420 Snowbrush

421 Chokecherry-serviceberry-rose

422 Riparian

501 Saltbush-greasewood

502 Grama-galleta

503 Arizona chaparral

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

505 Grama-tobosa shrub

506 Creosotebush-bursage

507 Palo verde-cactus

508 Creosotebush-tarbush

509 Transition between oak-juniper woodland and mahogany-oak association

601 Bluestem prairie

604 Bluestem-grama prairie

605 Sandsage prairie

611 Blue grama-buffalo grass

701 Alkali sacaton-tobosagrass

702 Black grama-alkali sacaton

703 Black grama-sideoats grama

704 Blue grama-western wheatgrass

705 Blue grama-galleta

706 Blue grama-sideoats grama

707 Blue grama-sideoats grama-black grama

708 Bluestem-dropseed

709 Bluestem-grama

710 Bluestem prairie

711 Bluestem-sacahuista prairie

712 Galleta-alkali sacaton

713 Grama-muhly-threeawn

714 Grama-bluestem

715 Grama-buffalo grass

716 Grama-feathergrass

717 Little bluestem-Indiangrass-Texas wintergrass

718 Mesquite-grama

719 Mesquite-liveoak-seacoast bluestem

720 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (dunes)

721 Sand bluestem-little bluestem (plains)

722 Sand sagebrush-mixed prairie

723 Sea oats

724 Sideoats grama-New Mexico feathergrass-winterfat

725 Vine mesquite-alkali sacaton

726 Cordgrass

727 Mesquite-buffalo grass

728 Mesquite-granjeno-acacia

729 Mesquite

730 Sand shinnery oak

731 Cross timbers-Oklahoma

732 Cross timbers-Texas (little bluestem-post oak)

733 Juniper-oak

734 Mesquite-oak

735 Sideoats grama-sumac-juniper

801 Savanna

802 Missouri prairie

803 Missouri glades

804 Tall fescue

805 Riparian

806 Gulf Coast salt marsh

807 Gulf Coast fresh marsh

808 Sand pine scrub

809 Mixed hardwood and pine

810 Longleaf pine-turkey oak hills

811 South Florida flatwoods

812 North Florida flatwoods

813 Cutthroat seeps

814 Cabbage palm flatwoods

815 Upland hardwood hammocks

816 Cabbage palm hammocks

817 Oak hammocks

818 Florida salt marsh

819 Freshwater marsh and ponds

820 Everglades flatwoods

821 Pitcher plant bogs

822 Slough
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Immediate Effect of Fire

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Anecdotal evidence cited in reviews (e.g., [11,28,95]) indicates that giant reed is top-killed by fire, and in most circumstances underground rhizomes survive fire.
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Impacts and Control

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More info for the terms: association, cover, fire management, forest, fresh, grass/fire cycle, natural, presence, rhizome

Impacts: Bell [11] considers giant reed to be the greatest threat to southern California's remaining riparian corridors. It is so widespread and problematic in this area that more than 20 public and private organizations came together to form the Santa Ana River Arundo Management Task Force, also known as Team Arundo [54].

Once established, giant reed often forms monocultural stands that physically inhibit growth of other plant species [11,80]. For example, Douthit [26] describes a 1993 preliminary riparian assessment of the Santa Ana River basin where in the Riverside West Quad, 762 acres (308 ha) of 1,116 acres (470 ha) of riparian vegetation are impacted by giant reed. Of the impacted acres, 535 acres (217 ha) are monospecific stands of giant reed.

Although evidence is entirely anecdotal, several accounts (e.g., [11,20,29,84,95]) describe changes in fuels, fire characteristics, and/or postfire plant community response in southern California riparian areas invaded by giant reed that are suggestive of an invasive grass/fire cycle. The result of such cycle is loss of native riparian species, and continued dominance and spread of giant reed. See Fire ecology for more details.

Canopy structure of giant reed colonies differs from that of native vegetation, resulting in changes in water quality and wildlife habitat. The lack of stream-side canopy structure may result in increased pH in the shallower sections of rivers due to high algal photosynthetic activity [9,17]. In turn, high pH facilitates conversion of ammonium (NH4+) to toxic ammonia (NH3), which further degrades water quality for aquatic species and for downstream users [9]. Several species listed as endangered are further threatened by giant reed invasion and control efforts in San Francisquito Canyon including least Bell's vireo, unarmored threespine stickleback, and Nevin's barberry (Mahonia nevinii) [95].

Giant reed is becoming a major biological pollutant of river estuaries and beaches. It is often ripped out of the soft bottoms of rivers during storms and washed downstream into flood control channels [25]. Giant reed growing in flood control channels necessitates constant removal. It can form debris dams against flood control and transportation structures such as bridges and culverts [29,37]. Because the rhizomes of giant reed grow close to the surface, they break off during floods. When the root mass breaks away during these floods the riverbanks are destabilized. Destabilization of riverbanks is the leading cause of flooding in southern California [99].

Iverson [50] provides insight into the economics of giant reed's impact on water use. He estimates giant reed transpires 56,200 acre-feet of water per year on the Santa Ana River, compared to an estimated 18,700 acre-feet that would be consumed by native vegetation - the difference being enough water to serve a population of about 190,000 people. If that amount of untreated water (37,500 acre-feet) was purchased from the Metropolitan Water Association it would cost approximately $12,000,000 in 1993 dollars [50].

Control: A suite of methods is needed to control giant reed depending on presence or absence of native plants, size of the stand, amount of biomass involved, terrain, and season. The key to effective treatment of established giant reed is killing or removing the rhizomes [11].

To be successful, a program to eliminate a riparian invasive plant like giant reed must start at the uppermost reaches of the watershed and work down stream. This means there must be coordination with all of the landowners and land managers, top to bottom, in a watershed. Regulatory agencies must provide technical assistance and required permits, and private landowners must provide work crews access to land [99].

To adequately coordinate removal of giant reed in a watershed, 3 programs need to be operating: 1) create a functional mapped database that contains hydrology, land ownership/use, infestations, project sites, etc.; 2) coordination with regulatory agencies to plan mitigation project sites to fit within other current projects; 3) regular meetings of stakeholders to share information regarding threats from giant reed, control techniques, funding opportunities, and each stakeholder's direct role and responsibility [99].

Prevention: Grading and construction can spread giant reed [80]. Care must therefore be taken in areas where it occurs such that soil disturbance and movement of plant parts is minimized.

Integrated management: A popular approach to treating giant reed has been to cut the stalks and remove the biomass, wait 3 to 6 weeks for the plants to grow about 3.3 feet (1 m) tall, then apply a foliar spray of herbicide solution. The chief advantage to this approach is less herbicide is needed to treat fresh growth compared with tall, established plants, and coverage is often better because of the shorter and uniform-height plants. However, cutting the stems may result in plants returning to growth-phase, drawing nutrients from the root mass. As a result there is less translocation of herbicide to the roots and less root-kill. Additionally, cut-stem treatment requires more time and personnel than foliar spraying and requires careful timing. Cut stems must be treated with concentrated herbicide within 1 to 2 minutes of cutting to ensure tissue uptake. This treatment is most effective after flowering. The advantage of this treatment is that it requires less herbicide and the herbicide can be applied more precisely. It is rarely less expensive than foliar spraying except on very small, isolated patches or individual plants [11].

An investigation to test the effectiveness of glyphosate for control of giant reed was conducted in southern California by Caltrans, the state transportation agency. Results indicate cut-stem treatments, regardless of time of application (May, July, or September), provided 100% control with no resprouting. In contrast, virtually all plants that were left untreated following cutting resprouted vigorously. Foliar treatments produced highly variable results with top die-back varying from 10 to 90% and resprouting ranging from 0 to 100% at various sites. The authors conclude treatment of cut stems appears more effective than foliar spraying in controlling giant reed with glyphosate [34].

In 1995, a full-scale project for control of giant reed was initiated in San Francisquito Canyon in the Angeles National Forest. The standing giant reed was mulched in place, using a hammer flail mower attached to a tractor, and then glyphosate was applied to the resprouts. Initial mulching occurred in October and November, 1995. Resprouts in spring, 1996, were treated with a solution of glyphosate in April, May, July, and August. Resprouts were treated again in June and September, 1997. In 1998, giant reed continued to resprout in the treatment area, but comprised only 1% of vegetative cover, as compared to 30% to 80% prior to treatment [8]. No information is provided about the composition of the plant community posttreatment.

Physical/mechanical: Minor infestations of giant reed can be eradicated by manual methods, especially where sensitive native plants and wildlife might be damaged by other methods. Hand pulling works with new plants less than 6.6 feet (2 m) in height, but care must be taken that all rhizomes are removed [49]. This may be most effective in loose soils and after rains have loosened the substrate. Giant reed can be dug using hand tools and in combination with cutting plants near the base. Stems and roots should be removed and burned on site to prevent rerooting. The fibrous nature of giant reed makes using a chipper difficult (R. Dale personal communication in [28]). For larger infestations on accessible terrain, heavier tools (rotary brush cutter, chainsaw, or tractor-mounted mower) may facilitate biomass removal followed by rhizome removal or chemical treatment. Such methods may be of limited value on complex or sensitive terrain or on slopes over 30%. These methods may also interfere with re-establishment of native plants [49]. Mechanical eradication of giant reed is extremely difficult, even with the use of a backhoe, as rhizomes buried under 3 to 10 feet (1-3 m) of alluvium readily resprout (R. Dale personal communication in [28]).

Cut material is often burned on site, subject to local fire regulations, because of the difficulty and expense involved in collecting and removing or chipping all material. Stems and roots must be removed, chipped, or burned on site to avoid re-rooting (Dale, personal communication in [28]).

Fire: See Fire Management Considerations.

Biological: Tracy and DeLoach [93] provide an exhaustive summary of the search for biological control agents for giant reed in the United States. Areas dominated by giant reed in North America are essentially devoid of wildlife. This means native flora and fauna do not offer any significant control potential [11]. It is uncertain what natural controlling mechanisms for giant reed are in its countries of origin, although corn borers (Eizaguirre and others 1990 in [11]), spider mites [31], and aphids [65] have been reported in the Mediterranean. A sugar cane moth-borer in Barbados is reported to attack giant reed, but it is also a major pest of sugar cane and is already found in the United States in Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida [94]. A leafhopper in Pakistan utilizes giant reed as an alternate host but attacks corn and wheat [1].

In the United States a number of diseases have been reported on giant reed, including root rot, lesions, crown rust, and stem speckle, but none seem to have seriously impacted advance of this weed [11].

Giant reed is not very palatable to cattle, but during the drier seasons they will graze the young shoots, followed by the upper parts of the older plants [108]. In many areas of California the use of Angora and Spanish goats is showing promise for controlling giant reed [21].

Chemical: Application of herbicides on giant reed is most effective after flowering and before dormancy. During this period, usually mid-August to early November in southern California, the plants are actively translocating nutrients to the root mass in preparation for winter dormancy. This may result in effective translocation of herbicide to the roots [11]. Comparison trials on the Santa Margarita River in southern California indicate foliar application during the appropriate season results in almost 100% control, compared with only 5 to 50% control using cut-stem treatment. Two to 3 weeks after foliar treatment the leaves and stalks brown and soften creating an additional advantage in dealing with the biomass. Cut green stems might take root if left on damp soil and are very difficult to cut and chip. Treated stems have little or no potential to root and are brittle (Omori 1996 in Bell [11]). Bell [11], Hoshovsky [49], and Jackson [52] provide detailed information on specific herbicides and concentrations used to treat giant reed.

In the proceedings from a workshop on giant reed control published online, Bell [11] asserts pure stands of giant reed (>80% canopy cover) are most efficiently and effectively treated by aerial application of an herbicide concentrate, usually by helicopter. Helicopter application can treat at least 124 acres (50 ha) per day. In areas where helicopter access is impossible and giant reed makes up the understory, where patches are too small to make aerial application financially efficient, or where giant reed is mixed with native plants (<80% canopy coverage), herbicides must be applied by hand.

Cultural: Giant reed appears to be insensitive to flood regime. It survives and spreads through vegetative propagation during long periods without flooding but spreads during flood events as well. Because it does not reproduce sexually, giant reed is not affected by the timing of spring flows, but can establish any time that flood flows carry and deposit stem fragments or rhizomes. It thrives along edges of reservoirs, irrigation canals, and other structures where timing of drawdowns is incompatible with maintenance of native species [97].

Conversely, native riparian species and communities depend on natural flood regimes for maintenance and reproduction. If natural flood dynamics are maintained as part of an integrated management approach, native species may have a better chance of competing with giant reed in the long term [11].

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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

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More info for the term: cover

Available evidence indicates giant reed provides neither food nor habitat for native species of wildlife [11]. Bell [11] speculates that insects are sparse in sites dominated by giant reed because of abundant chemical defense compounds produced by the plant.

Palatability/nutritional value: Giant reed stems and leaves contain a wide array of chemicals that probably protect it from most native insects and grazers. These chemicals include silica [51,74], triterpines, sterols [18], cardiac glycosides, curare-mimicking indoles [39], hydroxamic acid, and numerous other alkaloids (Bell [11] and references therein).

Giant reed is not very palatable to cattle, but they will eat it during dry seasons [49,108]. Domestic goats will also eat it [21,49].

Giant reed is low in protein but has a comparatively high concentration of phosphorus in the upper portions even when grown on soils with an extremely low concentration of this mineral [74,108].

Nutritional content of giant reed. Results are an average of 2 samples for each category and are presented as percentages of oven-dry weight [108]:

Old plant Young plant Lower half Upper half Lower half Upper half Total nitrogen 0.63 1.10 0.50 1.96 Protein (total N x 6.25) 3.94 6.88 3.13 12.25 Phosphorus 0.082 0.114 0.105 0.152 Calcium 0.52 0.67 0.30 0.43 Magnesium 0.25 0.32 0.12 0.19 Potassium 2.04 2.42 3.09 3.19 Carbohydrate 23.2 21.7 20.0 20.7

Cover value: Areas dominated by giant reed are largely depauperate of wildlife [9,11,54]. Additionally, a study by Chadwick and Associates [17] suggests giant reed also lacks the canopy structure to provide shading of bank-edge river habitats, resulting in warmer water than would be found with a native gallery of willows and cottonwoods. In the Santa Ana River system in California, this lack of streambank structure and shading has been implicated in the decline of native stream fishes including the arroyo chub, three-spined stickleback, speckled dace, and the Santa Ana sucker [9,17].

Giant reed has no structural similarity to any dominant riparian plant it replaces and offers little useful cover or nest placement opportunities for birds. Main stems are vertical with no horizontal structure strong enough to support birds [110]. For example, the southwestern willow flycatcher, an endangered species, has not been reported nesting in any vegetation patches dominated by giant reed [97]. Only a few of bird species have been observed using giant reed for nest sites. Dramatic reductions (50% or more) in abundance and diversity of invertebrates were also documented in giant reed thickets in southern California compared with those found in native willow/cottonwood vegetation [29]. Giant reed's most observed use as cover has been by feral pigs [110].

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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Life Form

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Graminoid
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Other uses and values

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Giant reed has been planted extensively for erosion control along drainage canals [49]. Wynd and others [108] report it can also be used to stabilize sand dunes. It is also used for thatching roofs of sheds, barns and other buildings [49]. Mexican campesinos use new tillers of giant reed for roofing and construction materials. It is the most important construction material in the Juamave region of Mexico [2]. Giant reed makes a good quality paper, and in Italy it is used in the manufacture of rayon [24].

Giant reed is used to make reeds for a variety of musical instruments including bagpipes [11,74]. Reeds for woodwind musical instruments are still made from the culms of giant reed, and no satisfactory substitutes have been developed. The basis for the origin of the most primitive pipe organ, the Pan pipe or syrinx, was made from giant reed [74].

Five thousand years ago Egyptians used giant reed to line underground grain storage bins, and mummies from the 4th century A.D. were wrapped in giant reed leaves. Additional uses include basket-making, fishing rods, arrows, and ornamental plants. Medicinally, giant reed's rhizome has been used as a sudorific, a diuretic, an antilactant, and in the treatment of dropsy [74].

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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Phenology

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Information on the phenology of giant reed in the literature is sparse. In California, culms may remain green throughout the year, but can fade during semi-dormancy during the winter months or in drought [28,99]. According to Bell [11] in an assessment of optimal timing of herbicide application, giant reed plants actively translocate nutrients to the rootmass in preparation for winter dormancy around mid-August to early November.

Flowering dates for giant reed by location

State

Time of flowering California (southern) late summer [11] Carolina, North and South September-October [77] Florida all year [107] New Mexico June to September [62]
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Plant Response to Fire

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As of this writing (2004) no research is available on postfire response of giant reed; however, observations indicate that in most circumstances fire cannot kill the underground rhizomes. One week after a fire in Soledad Canyon in January 1991, for example, burned giant reed colonies were sprouting from their extensive rhizomes. Many sprouts were over 2 feet (0.6 m) tall within 2 weeks after the fire, even though January is normally the dormant period for giant reed (Joyce, personal observation in [95]). 
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: forest, natural, rhizome, seed

The reproductive biology of giant reed is not well studied. As of this writing (2004), information on the importance of sexual reproduction, seed viability, dormancy, germination and seedling establishment is not available.

Giant reed reproduces vegetatively by sprouting from rhizomes and stem nodes (reviews by [11,28,49]).

Breeding system: No information is available on this topic.

Pollination: No information is available on this topic.

Seed production: Although giant reed is well adapted in many parts of North America, it rarely, if ever, produces viable seed here (reviews by [11,74])[47].

Seed dispersal: The hairy, light-weight disseminules (individual florets with the enclosed grain) are dispersed by wind [33].

Seed banking: No information is available on this topic.

Germination: No information is available on this topic.

Seedling establishment/growth: Seedlings of giant reed have not been observed in the field [28]. Establishment of giant reed is from fragmented rhizomes or stem nodes that take root (see Asexual regeneration, below).

Giant reed grows very rapidly. In a southern California study, Rieger and Kreager [80] cut an established giant reed community and measured its growth after cutting. Growth rates from established rhizomes averaged 2.5 inches (6.25 cm) per day in the first 40 days and 1 inch (2.67 cm) per day in the first 150 days. Under optimal conditions (i.e., cultivation) giant reed is reported to grow 1.5 to 4 inches (4-10 cm) per day (review by [74]).

Asexual regeneration: Population expansion of giant reed in North America is through vegetative reproduction. This occurs either via underground rhizome extension or from plant fragments carried downstream (review by [28]). Giant reed is well adapted to the high disturbance dynamics of riparian systems, as floods break up clumps of giant reed and spread pieces downstream where they can take root and establish new clones [11,28]. Anecdotal accounts suggest that rhizomes buried under as much as 3 to 10 feet (1-3 m) of alluvium can "readily resprout" (R. Dale, personal communication in [28]).

Much of the cultivation of giant reed throughout the world is initiated by planting rhizomes which root and sprout easily [48,49]. A 1949 joint publication by the U.S. Forest Service and the California Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry, describing recommended plants for erosion control [48] states pieces of giant reed rhizomes can be buried to establish the plant. A 1988 paper describes giant reed as a planted rhizome which "performs well" as an understory plant in riparian zones in New Mexico [91]. In a greenhouse experiment, Motamed [68] determined that giant reed stem fragments rooted throughout the growing season.

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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [12]:




3 Southern Pacific Border

4 Sierra Mountains

6 Upper Basin and Range

7 Lower Basin and Range

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont

14 Great Plains
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

States or Provinces

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(key to state/province abbreviations)
UNITED STATES AL AZ AR CA FL GA HI IL KS KY LA MD MS MO NV NM NC OK SC TN TX UT VA WV PR VI
MEXICO Chih. Coah. Son. Tamps.
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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Successional Status

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More info for the terms: fire regime, grass/fire cycle, top-kill

Giant reed can establish and spread in communities of various successional stages, acting as an early-successional pioneer species, and a late-successional dominant.

According to reviews by Bell [11] and Dudley [28], giant reed is well adapted to the high disturbance dynamics of riparian systems, as floods break up clumps of giant reed and spread pieces downstream where they can take root and establish new clones. In California, it is most common along waterways with altered hydrologic regimes (e.g., dams) and/or disturbed riparian vegetation, but can also establish in the understory of native riparian vegetation [28]. However, establishment of giant reed in dense, mature riparian vegetation may be limited [80].

Once established, giant reed grows quickly [74,80] and spreads vegetatively, often forming monocultural stands that physically inhibit growth of other plant species [11,26,80]. Invaded habitats may thus become pure stands of giant reed [10,80,95].

Although evidence is limited and anecdotal, some authors (e.g., [9,84]) note changes in fuels, fire characteristics, and postfire plant community response that are suggestive of an invasive grass/fire cycle perpetuated by giant reed invasion in southern California riparian areas. Because giant reed produces abundant biomass (i.e., fuel), is "extremely flammable", and responds with rapid growth from sprouting rhizomes after top-kill, it may alter fire regime characteristics and successional processes of invaded riparian ecosystems (see FIRE REGIMES).

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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Taxonomy

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The currently accepted scientific name of giant reed is Arundo donax L.
(Poaceae) [13,40,53,56,57,62,63,69,77,103,105,107]. One variety of giant reed
is recognized in the literature:



Arundo donax L. var. versicolor (P. Mill) Stokes [53,107].

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McWilliams, Jack. 2004. Arundo donax. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us /database/feis/plants/graminoid/arudon/all.html

Description

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Culms up to 6 m, usually simple. Leaves: lamina up to 60 × 6 cm, glaucous. Panicle 30–60 cm, oblong. Spikelets 12–18 mm, usually with 3 florets; lanceolate; lemmas lanceolate.
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Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T. and Ballings, P. (2002-2014). Arundo donax L. Flora of Zimbabwe website. Accessed 28 August 2014 at http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=104010
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Frequency

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Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T. and Ballings, P. (2002-2014). Arundo donax L. Flora of Zimbabwe website. Accessed 28 August 2014 at http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=104010
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Worldwide distribution

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Asia
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Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T. and Ballings, P. (2002-2014). Arundo donax L. Flora of Zimbabwe website. Accessed 28 August 2014 at http://www.zimbabweflora.co.zw/speciesdata/species.php?species_id=104010
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Physical Description

provided by USDA PLANTS text
Perennials, Aquatic, leaves e mergent, Terrestrial, not aquatic, Rhizomes present, Rhizome short and compact, stems close, Rhizome elongate, creeping, stems distant, Stems woody, Stems nodes swollen or brittle, Stems erect or ascending, Stems caespitose, tufted, or clustered, Stems terete, round in cross section, or polygonal, Stems branching above base or distally at nodes, Stem internodes hollow, Stems with inflorescence 2-6 m tall, Stems with inflorescence 6 m or taller, Stems, culms, or scapes exceeding basal leaves, Leaves mostly cauline, Leaves conspicuously 2-ranked, distichous, Leaves sheathing at base, Leaf sheath mostly open, or loose, Leaf sheath smooth, glabrous, Leaf sheath and blade differentiated, Leaf blades disarticulating from sheath, deciduous at ligule, Leaf blades linear, Leaf blades lanceolate, Leaf blade auriculate, Leaf blades 2 or more cm wide, Leaf blades mostly flat, Leaf blades mostly glabrous, Leaf blades scabrous, roughened, or wrinkled, Ligule present, Ligule an unfringed eciliate membrane, Inflorescence terminal, Inflorescence an open panicle, openly paniculate, branches spreading, Inflorescence a contracted panicle, narrowly paniculate, branches appressed or ascending, Inflorescence solitary, with 1 spike, fascicle, glomerule, head, or cluster per stem or culm, Inflorescence branches more than 10 to numerous, Flowers bisexual, Spikelets pedicellate, Spikelets laterally compressed, Spikelet less than 3 mm wide, Spikelets with 3-7 florets, Spikelets solitary at rachis nodes, Spikelets all alike and fertille, Spikelets bisexual, Spikelets disarticulating above the glumes, glumes persistent, Spikelets disarticulating beneath or between the florets, Spikelets conspicuously hairy , Rachilla or pedicel glabrous, Glumes present, empty bracts, Glumes 2 clearly present, Glumes equal or subequal, Glumes equal to or longer than adjacent lemma, Glumes keeled or winged, Glumes 3 nerved, Glumes 4-7 nerved, Lemma similar in texture to glumes, Lemma 3 nerv ed, Lemma 5-7 nerved, Lemma body or surface hairy, Lemma apex acute or acuminate, Lemma awnless, Lemma distinctly awned, more than 2-3 mm, Lemma with 1 awn, Lemma straight, Callus or base of lemma evidently hairy, Callus hairs equal to lemma, Callus hairs longer than lemma, Palea present, well developed, Palea membranous, hyaline, Palea shorter than lemma, Palea 2 nerved or 2 keeled, Palea keels winged, scabrous, or ciliate, Stamens 3, Styles 2-fid, deeply 2-branched, Stigmas 2, Fruit - caryopsis.
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Arundo donax

provided by wikipedia EN

Arundo donax is a tall perennial cane. It is one of several so-called reed species. It has several common names including giant cane, elephant grass, carrizo, arundo, Spanish cane, Colorado river reed, wild cane, and giant reed. Arundo and donax are respectively the old Latin and Greek names for reed.[3]

Arundo donax grows in damp soils, either fresh or moderately saline, and is native to the Greater Middle East.[4][5] It has been widely planted and naturalised in the mild temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of both hemispheres, especially in the Mediterranean, California, the western Pacific and the Caribbean and is considered invasive in North America and Oceania.[6][4][5][7][8] It forms dense stands on disturbed sites, sand dunes, in wetlands and riparian habitats.

Arundo donax

Description

Arundo donax generally grows to 6 metres (20 ft) in height, or in ideal conditions can exceed 10 metres (33 ft). The hollow stems are 2 to 3 centimetres (0.79 to 1.18 in) in diameter. The grey-green swordlike leaves are alternate, 30 to 60 centimetres (12 to 24 in) long and 2 to 6 centimetres (0.79 to 2.36 in) wide with a tapered tip, and have a hairy tuft at the base. Overall, the plant resembles an outsize common reed (Phragmites australis) or a bamboo (subfamily Bambusoideae).

A. donax flowers in late summer, bearing upright, feathery plumes 40 to 60 centimetres (16 to 24 in) long, that are usually seedless or with seeds that are rarely fertile.[9] Instead, it mostly reproduces vegetatively by tough, fibrous underground rhizomes that form knotty, spreading mats which penetrate deep into the soil, up to 1 metre (3.3 ft) deep.[10][11] Stem and rhizome pieces less than 5 centimetres (2.0 in) long and containing a single node could sprout readily under a variety of conditions.[12] This vegetative propagation appears well adapted to floods, which may break up individual A. donax clumps, spreading the pieces, which may sprout and colonise downstream.[10]

Phyllostachys aurea (golden bamboo) and A. donax
Arundo.donax2web.jpg
Arundo donax 2.jpg
Arundo donax 1.jpg

Biology

Arundo donax is a tall, perennial grass in the subfamily Arundinoideae, characterised by C3 photosynthesis. The stems produced during the first growing season are unbranched and photosynthetic. In the Mediterranean, where a temperate climate is characterized by warm and dry summer and mild winter, new shoots of giant reed emerge around March, growing rapidly in June and July and producing stems and leaves. From late July the lower leaves start to dry, depending on seasonal temperature patterns. Drying accelerates during autumn when anthesis occurs from the beginning of October to the end of November. In this phenological stage moisture content falls significantly. In the low temperatures of winter giant reed stops its growth; regrowth occurs in springtime. Giant reed behaves as an annual in Central Europe where soil temperatures are low, due to poor freeze tolerance of the rhizomes.

The base growth temperature reported for giant reed is 7 °C,[13] with a maximum temperature of 30 °C. It has a high photosynthetic capacity, associated with absence of light saturation. Carbon dioxide exchange rates are high compared to other C3 and C4 species; maximum CO2 uptake ranged from 19.8 to 36.7 µmol m−2 s−1 under natural conditions, depending on irradiance and leaf age. Carbon dioxide exchange is regulated by leaf conductance.[14]

Studies have found this plant to be rich in active tryptamine compounds, but there are more indications of the plants in India having these compounds than in the United States.[15] Toxins such as bufotenidine[16] and gramine[15] have also been found.

The dried rhizome with the stem removed has been found to contain 0.0057% DMT, 0.026% bufotenine, 0.0023% 5-MeO-MMT.[15] The flowers are also known to have DMT and the 5-methoxylated N-demethylated analogue, also 5-MeO-NMT. The quite toxic quaternary methylated salt of DMT, bufotenidine,[15] has been found in the flowers, and the cyclic dehydrobufotenidine has been found in the roots. A. donax is also known to release volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mainly isoprene.[17]

Genetic background

In most areas where giant reed grows (Mediterranean area and US), viable seeds are not produced.[18] It is reported that sterility of giant reed results from failure of the megaspore mother cell to divide.[19] This sterility, which drastically limits genetic variability, is an obstacle for breeding programs which aim to increase the productivity and biomass quality for energy conversion.[20] A total of 185 clones of A. donax were collected from California to South Carolina and genetically fingerprinted with the SRAP and TE-based markers.[21] Giant reed exhibited no molecular genetic variation despite the wide genomic coverage of the markers used in this study. The molecular data strongly point to a single genetic clone of A. donax in the United States, although multiple introductions of this plant into the United States have been documented. Another study conducted in the Mediterranean area sampled giant reed from 80 different sites, and demonstrated low gene diversity in this region as well. Results indicate the occurrence of post-meiotic alterations in the ovule and pollen developmental pathway. AFLP data support a monophyletic origin of giant reed and suggest that it originated in Asia, spreading from there into the Mediterranean Basin.

Ecology

Giant reed is adapted to a wide variety of ecological conditions, but is generally associated with riparian and wetland systems. It is distributed across the southern United States from Maryland to California. Plants can grow in a variety of soils, from heavy clays to loose sands and gravelly soils, but prefer wet drained soils, where they produce dense monotypic stands.

Invasiveness and management

Arundo is a highly invasive plant in southwestern North American rivers, and its promotion as a biofuel in other regions is of great concern to environmental scientists and land managers.[22] Arundo donax was introduced from the Mediterranean to California in the 1820s for roofing material and erosion control in drainage canals in the Los Angeles area.[23][10] Through spread and subsequent plantings as an ornamental plant, and for use as reeds in woodwind instruments, it has become naturalised throughout warm coastal freshwaters of North America, and its range continues to spread.

It has been planted widely through South America and Australasia[23][12] and in New Zealand it is listed under the National Pest Plant Accord as an "unwanted organism".[24] Despite its invasive characteristics in regions around the world where it is not native, Arundo is being promoted by the energy industry as a bio-fuel crop. Some of the regions, such as the southeastern United States have natural disturbances, such as hurricanes and floods, that could widely disperse this plant.

It is among the fastest-growing terrestrial plants in the world (nearly 10 centimetres (3.9 in) per day).[8] To present knowledge, Arundo does not provide any food sources or nesting habitats for wildlife. Replacement of native plant communities by Arundo results in low-quality habitat and altered ecosystem functioning.[23][10] For example, it damages California's riparian ecosystems by outcompeting native species, such as willows, for water. A. donax stems and leaves contain a variety of harmful chemicals, including silica and various alkaloids, which protect it from most insect herbivores and deter wildlife from feeding on it.[23][25][10] Grazing animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats may have some effect on it, but are unlikely to be useful in keeping it under control.[8]

Arundo donax appears to be highly adapted to fires. It is highly flammable throughout the year, and during the drier months of the year (July to October), it can increase the probability, intensity, and spread of wildfires through the riparian environment, changing the communities from flood-defined to fire-defined communities.[26] After fires, A. donax rhizomes can resprout quickly, outgrowing native plants, which can result in large stands of A. donax along riparian corridors.[27][23] Fire events thus push the system further toward mono-specific stands of A. donax.

A waterside plant community dominated by A. donax may also have reduced canopy shading of the in-stream habitat, which may result in increased water temperatures. This may lead to decreased oxygen concentrations and lower diversity of aquatic animals.[23]

As the impact of Arundo donax increased in the environment and native species various efforts have been taken to reduce its population. It has few natural enemies in its introduced range. Several Mediterranean insects have been imported into the United States as biological control agents.[23][25][10] The Arundo wasp, Tetramesa romana, the Arundo scale insect, Rhizaspidiotus donacis, and the Arundo fly, Cryptonevra are known to have some effect in damaging the plant. Tetramesa romana and more recently Rhizaspidiotus donacisis were registered in the US as biological control agents.

Other remedies like using mechanical force have also been employed, since outside its native range Arundo donax does not reproduce by seeds, so removing its root structure can be effective at controlling it. Preventing it from getting sunlight will deplete the plant of its resources and eventually kill it.[10] Systemic herbicides and glyphosate are also used as chemical remedies.

The US Department of Homeland Security considers this plant invasive and in 2007 began researching biological controls.[28] In 2015, Texas Senator Carlos Uresti passed legislation to create a program to eradicate Arundo donax using herbicides and the Arundo wasp.[29]

In New Zealand's northernmost region, Arundo donax crowds out native plants,[30] reduces wildlife habitat, contributes to higher fire frequency and intensity, and modifies river hydrology.[31]

Uses

Energy crop

Energy crops are plants which are produced with the express purpose of using their biomass energetically [32] and at the same time reduce carbon dioxide emission. Biofuels derived from lignocellulosic plant material represent an important renewable energy alternative to transportation fossil fuels.[33] Perennial rhizomatous grasses display several positive attributes as energy crops because of their high productivity, low (no) demand for nutrient inputs consequent to the recycling of nutrients by their rhizomes, exceptional soil carbon sequestration - 4X switchgrass, multiple products, adaptation to saline soils and saline water, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses.

Giant reed is one of the most promising crops for energy production in the Mediterranean climate of Europe and Africa, where it has shown advantages as an indigenous crop (already adapted to the environment), durable yields, and resistant to long drought periods. Several field studies have highlighted the beneficial effect of giant reed crop on the environment due to its minimal soil tillage, fertilizer and pesticide needs. Furthermore, it offers protection against soil erosion,[34] one of the most important land degradation processes in Mediterranean and US environments. A. donax bioenergy feedstock has an impressive potential for several conversion processes. Dried biomass has a direct combustion high heating value of 19,000 kJ/kg (8,000 BTU/lb). In Italy, Arundo donax was used in one instance from 1937 to 1962 on a large-scale industrial basis for paper and dissolving pulp. This interest was stimulated primarily by the desire of the dictatorship, just before World War II, to be independent of foreign sources of textile fibres and the desire for an export product.[6] According to historical records made by Snia Viscosa, giant reed was established on 6 300 ha in Torviscosa (Udine), reaching the average annual production of 35 t ha−1.[35] Today several screening studies on energy crops have been carried out by several universities in the US as well as in EU to evaluate and identify best management practices for maximizing biomass yields and assess environmental impacts.

Cultivation

Establishment is a critical point of cultivation. Stem and rhizome have a great ability to sprout after removal from mother plant and both can be used for clonal propagation. The use of rhizomes was found to be the better propagation method for this species, achieving better survival rate.[36] In this field study, it was noticed how the lowest density (12 500 rhizomes ha−1) resulted in taller and thicker plants compared to denser plantation (25 000 rhizomes ha−1). Seedbed preparation is conducted in the spring, immediately before planting, by a pass with a double-disk harrowing and a pass with a field cultivator. Giant reed has the possibility of adopting low plant density. The rhizomes were planted at 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) of soil depth, with a minimum plant density of 10 000 plants per ha), while mature stems, with two or more nodes, can be planted 10–15 centimetres (3.9–5.9 in) deep. In order to ensure good root stand and adequate contact with the soil, sufficient moisture is needed immediately after planting. Pre-plant fertilizer is distributed according to the initial soil fertility, but usually an application of P at a rate of 80–100 kilograms (180–220 lb) ha−1 is applied.

A. donax maintains a high productive aptitude without irrigation under semi-arid climate conditions. In Southern Italy, a trial was carried out testing the yields performance of 39 genotypes, and an average yields of 22.1 t ha−1 dry matter in the second year were reached,[37] a comparable result with others results obtained in Spain (22.5 t ha−1) as well as in South Greece (19.0 t ha−1). Several reports underlined that it is more economical to grow giant reed under moderate irrigation.

In order to evaluate different management practices, nitrogen fertilizer and input demand was evaluated in a 6-year field study conducted at the University of Pisa. Fertilizer enhanced the productive capacity in the initial years, but as the years go by and as the radical apparatus progressively deepens, the differences due to fertilizer decrease until disappearing. Harvest time and plant density were found to not affect the biomass yields.

Due to its high growth rate and superior resource-capture capacity (light, water and nutrients), A. donax is not affected by weed competition from the second year. An application of post-emergence treatment is usually recommended. Giant reed has few known diseases or insect pests, but in intensive cultivation, no pesticides are used.

To remove giant reed at the end of the crop cycle, there are mainly two methods: mechanical or chemical.[38] An excavator can be useful to dig out the rhizomes or alternatively a single late-season application of 3% glyphosate onto the foliar mass is efficient and effective with least hazardous to biota.[39] Glyphosate was selected as the most appropriate product for specific considerations on efficacy, environmental safety, soil residual activity, operator safety, application timing, and cost-effectiveness. However, glyphosate is only effective in fall when plants are actively transporting nutrients to the root zone, and multiple retreatments are usually needed. Other herbicides registered for aquatic use can be very effective in controlling Arundo at other times of the year.

Biofuel

Arundo donax is a strong candidate for use as a renewable biofuel source because of its fast growth rate and its ability to grow in different soil types and climatic conditions. A. donax will produce an average of three kilograms of biomass per square metre (12 tons per acre/year) once established.[40] The total energy input needed for the growing of one ha increases from not fertilised (4 GJ ha−1) to fertilised (18 GJ ha−1) crops, while the maximum energy yield output was 496 GJ ha−1, obtained with 20,000 plants per ha and fertilisation; fertilisation brought a 15% increase in biomass. The biomass calorific mean value (technically, the calorific value obtained from combustion of biomass sample in an adiabatic system) of Giant reed is about 17 MJ kg−1 dry matter regardless of fertilizer usage.[40]

Studies in the European Union have identified A. donax as the most productive and lowest impact of all energy biomass crops (see FAIR REPORT E.U. 2004).

Its ability to grow for 20 to 25 years without replanting is also significant.

In the UK it is considered suitable for planting in and around water areas.[41]

Arundo donax grown in Australia was demonstrated as potential feedstock for producing advanced biofuels through hydrothermal liquefaction.[42]

Outside its native range, the interest as a biofuel crop needs to be balanced against its major invasive potential.

Carbon sequestration

An increased environmental concern is the health of soil system as one of the main factors affecting quality and productivity of agroecosystems. Around the world, several regions are subjected to a decline of fertility due to an increasing degradation of soils, loss of organic matter and increasing desertification.[43] Recently research was carried out to evaluate, in the same pedological and climatic conditions, the impact of three long-term (14 years) agricultural systems, continuous giant reed, natural grassland, and cropping sequence, on the organic-matter characteristics and microbial biomass size in soil.[44] The study pointed out that a long term Giant reed cropping system, characterized by low tillage intensity, positively affect the amount and quality of soil organic matter. Arundo donax showed greater values than tilled management system for total soil organic carbon, light fraction carbon, dissolved organic carbon, and microbial biomass carbon. Regarding the humification parameters, there were noticed any statistically differences between giant reed and a cropping sequence (cereals-legumes cultivated conventionally).

Ethnobotany

Arundo donax has been cultivated throughout Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East for thousands of years. Ancient Egyptians wrapped their dead in the leaves. The canes contain silica, perhaps the reason for their durability, and have been used to make fishing rods, and walking sticks. Its stiff stems are also used as support for climbing plants or for vines.

This plant may have been used in combination with harmal (Peganum harmala) to create a brew similar to the South American ayahuasca, and may trace its roots to the Soma of lore.[45]

Construction

Mature reeds are used in construction as raw material, given their excellent properties and tubular shape. Its resemblance to bamboo permits their combination in buildings, though Arundo is more flexible.

In rural regions of Spain, for centuries there has existed a technique named cañizo, consisting of rectangles of approximately 2 by 1 meters of woven reeds to which clay or plaster could be added. A properly insulated cañizo in a roof could keep its mechanical properties for over 60 years. Its high silicon content allows the cane to keep its qualities through time. Its low weight, flexibility, good adherence of the cañizo fabric and low price of the raw material have been the main reasons that this technique has been used. However, in the last decades, the rural migration from the countryside to urban centres and the extensive exploitation of land has reduced its use.

Recently, initiatives are being taken to recover the use of this material, combining ancient techniques from southern Iraq mudhif (reed houses) with new materials.

Diverse associations and collectives, such as CanyaViva, are pioneering in the research in combination with Spanish universities.

Musical instruments

Ancient Greeks used cane to make flutes, known as kalamaulos, from kalamos ("cane") + aulos ("flute"). At the time, the best cane for flutes came from the banks of river Cephissus, in Attica, Greece. Several kalamauloi tuned differently and tied together, made a syrinx. A. donax is still the principal source material of reed makers for clarinets, saxophones, oboes, bassoons, bagpipes, and other woodwind instruments.[46] The Var country in southern France contains the best-known supply of instrument reeds.

Additionally, giant reed has been used to make flutes for over 5,000 years. The pan pipes consist of ten or more pipes made from the cane. Also, the ancient end-blown flute ney (a) is made from the same reeds.

Other uses

When young, A. donax is readily browsed by ruminants, but it becomes unpalatable when maturing.[47] A. donax has also been used in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment.[48]

References

Notes

  1. ^ Lansdown, R.V. (2013). "Arundo donax". The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 208. e.T164340A1043245. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T164340A1043245.en.
  2. ^ "Arundo donax L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  3. ^ Gledhill D. 1985. The Names of Plants. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-5213-6675-5
  4. ^ a b CABI, 2020. Arundo donax (giant reed). In: Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CAB International. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/1940
  5. ^ a b Global Invasive Species Database (2020) Species profile: Arundo donax. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/species.php?sc=112 on 12-01-2020.
  6. ^ a b Perdue, R.E. Arundo donax—Source of musical reeds and industrial cellulose. Econ Bot 12, 368–404 (1958). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02860024
  7. ^ "Catalogue of Life 2008".
  8. ^ a b c Lambert, A.M., Dudley, T.L. and Saltonstall, K., 2010. Ecology and impacts of the large-statured invasive grasses Arundo donax and Phragmites australis in North America. Invasive Plant Science and Management, 3(4), pp.489-494.
  9. ^ (Johnson et al. 2006)
  10. ^ a b c d e f g Harrington, C. 1; Hayes, A. (2004). The Weed Workers' Handbook (PDF). Richmond, CA: The Watershed Project: California Invasive Plant Council.
  11. ^ Alden, Peter (1998). National Audubon Society field guide to the Pacific Northwest. Knopf Publishing. ISBN 0-679-44679-6. OCLC 37696259.
  12. ^ a b Boose; Holt (April 1999). "Environmental effects on asexual reproduction inArundo donax". Weed Research. 39 (2): 117–127. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3180.1999.00129.x. ISSN 0043-1737.
  13. ^ Spencer, D.F., Ksander, G.G., 2006. Estimate Arundo donax ramet recruitment using degree-day based equation. Aquat. Bot. 85, 282–288.
  14. ^ Rossa B, TuAers AV, Naidoo G, von Willert DJ. 1998. Arundo donax L. (Poaceae)—a C3 species with unusually high photosynthetic capacity. Botanica Acta. 111:216–21.
  15. ^ a b c d Erowid Arundo Donax Info Page 1
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  20. ^ Mariani C., R. Cabrini, A. Danin, P. Piffanelli, A. Fricano, S. Gomarasca, M. Dicandilo, F. Grassi and C. Soave. 2010 Origin, diffusion and reproduction of the giant reed (Arundo donax L.) a promising weedy energy crop. Annals of Applied Biology. 157: 191–202.
  21. ^ Ahmad R., Liow P.S., Spencer D.F., Jasieniuk M. 2008. Molecular evidence for a single genetic clone of invasive Arundo donax in the United States. Aquatic Botany. 88: 113–120.
  22. ^ Lambert, A.M., Dudley, T.L., Saltonstall, K., 2010. Ecology and impacts of the large-statured invasive grasses Arundo donax and Phragmites australis in North America. Invasive Plant Sci. Manag. 3, 489-494.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g Bell, Gary P. (c. 1997). Ecology and management of Arundo donax and approaches to riparian habitat restoration in southern California. [California Resources Agency]. OCLC 44494430.
  24. ^ "Giant reed". Biosecurity New Zealand. Retrieved 2009-01-13.
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  26. ^ Coffman, G., Ambrose, R., Rundel, P., 2010. Wildfire promotes dominance of invasive giant reed (Arundo donax) in riparian ecosystems. Biol. Invasions 12, 2723-2734.
  27. ^ Arundo Donax Workshop (c. 1994). Arundo Donax Workshop proceedings : November 19, 1993. Berkeley Digital Library Project. OCLC 44509994.
  28. ^ "Razing Cane". 2009-07-07.
  29. ^ Aguilar, Julian (2016-04-05). "New Carrizo Eradication Effort Reignites Old Debate". Texas Tribune.
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  31. ^ McAllister (2011). "Ecological impact of invasive Arundo donax populations in New Zealand: a 10 year study". Journal of Ecology. 53 (9): 62–67.
  32. ^ Lewandowski I, Scurlock JMO, Lindvall E, Christou M. 2003. The development and current status of perennial rhizomatous grasses as energy crops in the US and Europe. Biomass and Bioenergy. 25:335–61.
  33. ^ Sanderson K. 2006. US biofuels: A field in ferment. Nature 444: 673-676.
  34. ^ Heaton, E., Voigt, T., and Long, S.P. 2004. A quantitative review comparing the yields of two candidate C4 perennial biomass crops in relation to nitrogen, temperature and water. Biomass and Bioenergy. 27:21–30.
  35. ^ Facchini 1941 La canna gentile per la Produzione Della cellulose mobile. L’impresa agricolo-Industriale di Torviscosa
  36. ^ Christou M, Mardikis M, Alexopoulou E. 2000. Propagation material and plant density effects on the Arundo donax yields. In: Biomass for energy and industry: proceeding of the First World Conference, Sevilla, Spain, June 5–9, 2000. p. 1622–8.
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  38. ^ Jackson 1998, Chemical control of giant reed (Arundo donax) and salt cedar (Tamarix ramosissima).
  39. ^ Spencer, D.F., Tan, W., Liow, P., Ksander, G., Whitehand, L.C., Weaver, S., Olson, J., Newhauser, M., 2008. Evaluation of glyphosate for managing giant reed (Arundo donax). InvasivePlantSci.Manage.1,248–254.
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  41. ^ BS 7370-5 Recommendations for maintenance of water areas
  42. ^ Kosinkova, Jana; Ramirez, Jerome; Jablonsky, Michal; Ristovski, Zoran; Brown, Richard; Rainey, Thomas (24 May 2017). "Energy and chemical conversion of five Australian lignocellulosic feedstocks into bio-crude through liquefaction". RSC Advances. 7 (44): 27707–27717. Bibcode:2017RSCAd...727707K. doi:10.1039/C7RA02335A.
  43. ^ Albaladejo, J., and E. Díaz. 1990. Degradation and regeneration of the soil in a Mediterranean Spanish coastline: Trials in Lucdeme project (Degradación y regeneración del suelo en el litoral mediterráneo español: Experiencias en el proyecto LUCDEME). In Soil degradation and rehabilitation in Mediterranean environmental conditions (Degradación y regeneración del suelo en condiciones ambientales medíterráneas), ed. J. Albaladejo et al., 191–214. Madrid: CSIC.
  44. ^ Riffaldi, R., Saviozzi, A., Cardelli, A., Bulleri, F., and Angelini, L. 2010. Comparison of Soil Organic-Matter Characteristics under the Energy Crop Giant Reed, Cropping Sequence and Natural Grass. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 41:173–180.
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  46. ^ Opperman, Kalman (1956). Handbook for making and Adjusting Single Reeds. New York, New York: Chappell & Co. p. 40.
  47. ^ Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., Lebas F., 2015. Giant reed (Arundo donax). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/502 Last updated on December 7, 2015, 17:39
  48. ^ Calheiros, Cristina SC, et al. "Use of constructed wetland systems with Arundo and Sarcocornia for polishing high salinity tannery wastewater." Journal of environmental management 95.1 (2012): 66-71.

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Arundo donax: Brief Summary

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Arundo donax is a tall perennial cane. It is one of several so-called reed species. It has several common names including giant cane, elephant grass, carrizo, arundo, Spanish cane, Colorado river reed, wild cane, and giant reed. Arundo and donax are respectively the old Latin and Greek names for reed.

Arundo donax grows in damp soils, either fresh or moderately saline, and is native to the Greater Middle East. It has been widely planted and naturalised in the mild temperate, subtropical and tropical regions of both hemispheres, especially in the Mediterranean, California, the western Pacific and the Caribbean and is considered invasive in North America and Oceania. It forms dense stands on disturbed sites, sand dunes, in wetlands and riparian habitats.

Arundo donax
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