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White Fir

Abies concolor (Gordon) Lindl. ex Hildebr.

Associations

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Foodplant / gall
mycelium of Melampsorella caryophyllacearum causes gall of pale yellow, shorter, thicker, growing vertically upwards stem of Abies lowiana

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Factores de riesgo

Fuego y tala de ejemplares fuera del Parque Nacional de Sierra San Pedro Mártir.

Situación actual del hábitat con respecto a las necesidades de la especie

Aunque no hay grandes áreas de masas puras en Sierra San Pedro Mártir, el hábitat es propicio para el crecimiento y necesidades de la especie y con un alto grado de conservación.
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Factores de riesgo

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

En México la especie probablemente ya está extinta.

Situación actual del hábitat con respecto a las necesidades de la especie

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

Lepanthes guatemalensis tenía una alta especificidad por su hábitat, del cual quedaban pequeños manchones solamente en la región de Montebello. Por desgracia, este hábitat fue completamente destruido apenas en los últimos años. La especie se localizaba en sitos de pendientes muy pronunciadas y sin suelo, por lo que prácticamente no era útil para alguna actividad productiva. Sin embargo, las quemas del bosque para prácticas agrícolas en sitios cercanos podían extenderse al hábitat de la especie. Otra causa de pérdida del hábitat fueron los asentamientos irregulares y el aumento de la población, sobre todo a partir de 1982, cuando debido a la guerra civil en Guatemala, la región fue el asentamiento de inmigrantes de ese país que se establecieron en los alrededores del Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello. Finalmente, el cambio climático global también tuvo efectos drásticos en la pérdida de hábitat, pues las condiciones climáticas extremas que generó tuvieron efectos devastadores en 1998. En este año la sequía extrema produjo el deshidratamiento de la vegetación epífita, con la quema de pastizales y campos agrícolas practicada cada año en primavera, el fuego se extendió a los bosques cercanos, destruyendo completamente los pocos manchones de hábitat de L. guatemalensis.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Biología ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Antecedentes del estado de la especie o de las poblaciones principales

Esta especie no forma grandes masas arboladas como los pinos, se le encuentra en Sierra San Pedro Martir por arriba de los 2200 m, bajo condiciones de alta humedad atmosférica y edafica y bajas temperaturas. No forma grandes masas arboladas como los pinos.
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Biología de poblaciones ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Tamaño poblacional

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

La especie no ha vuelto a ser vista en su única localidad de México, por lo que probablemente está extinta en el país.

Antecedentes del estado de la especie o de las poblaciones principales

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

Lepanthes guatemalensis es una especie muy rara en México, pero común en el norte de Guatemala. Se conocen muy pocos ejemplares mexicanos, todos de la región de Montebello. El primer reporte de la especie en México fue publicado en el listado de orquídeas de Soto (1988), basado en un ejemplar colectado en 1985 por A. Espejo, pero existen especimenes que fueron colectados varios años antes por Breedlove y que no se conocieron sino hasta después. En la revisión del género en México, Salazar y Soto (1996) señalan que pudieron observar unos cuantos individuos en campo, en un hábitat sumamente amenazado. En los últimos años, después de visitas frecuentes a su localidad, la especie no ha vuelto a ser vista en campo, debido a que probablemente la población se extinguió a consecuencia de los incendios de 1998 (Soto, 1989; Salazar y Soto, 1996).
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Biología del taxón ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Relevancia de la especie

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

No existe información que indique esta especie tiene importancia ecosistémica o cultural.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Conservación ( Spanish; Castilian )

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No hay programas. Las poblaciones de esta especie se encuentran dentro del Parque Nacional de Sierra San Pedro Martir.
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Conservación ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Conservación

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

La conservación in situ de esta especie ya no es posible. Antes de su posible extinción la única población sólo sobrevivía a partir de unos cuantos ejemplares en un hábitat muy amenazado, por lo que el tamaño de la población no parecía ser viable para garantizar su conservación in situ.
La conservación ex situ de Lepanthes guatemalensis tampoco es posible, pues no existen plantas mexicanas en cultivo.
La única estrategia posible para esta especie consiste en la introducción de plantas provenientes de poblaciones contiguas a la de Montebello, para contar con una fuente de material para fines de propagación. La población más cercana geográficamente y posiblemente también genéticamente, sea la que se localiza en Quiché, Guatemala.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Descripción ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Árbol de tronco recto de hasta 61 m de alto y de aproximadamente 2.7 m de diámetro, corteza de un color blanco-grisáceo cuando es joven tornándose gris-café cuando es adulto, subiendo el tono hasta alternar líneas claras y oscuras, también es resinoso, hojas alternadas de +/- 2 en ramas bajas, de 3-9 cm de longitud sobre la superficie de las ramas, presenta, conos de 6-13 cm de longitud cuando se abre.
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Descripción ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Descripción de la especie

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

Hierba epífita, cespitosa, hasta 8.5 cm alto incluyendo inflorescencia. Raíces 0.5 mm grosor. Tallos rectos, 9-24 mm largo; cubiertos por 3-5 vainas lepanthiformes. Hoja elíptica a suborbicular, obtusa, peciolada, 7.5-12 x 4-8.5 mm. Inflorescencia más larga que la hoja, sobre el haz o el envés de la hoja, recemosa, con hasta 5 flores sucesivas; pedúnculo hasta 35 mm largo. Brácteas florales oblicuamente infundibuliformes, agudo-acuminadas, 1.3-1.5 mm largo. Flores 9-13 mm largo, sépalos amarillo-anaranjados, pétalos y labelo amarillos, difuminados de rojo, antera roja. Ovario 0.8 mm largo, articulado a un pedicelo de 1.5-2 mm largo. Sépalo dorsal ovado, largamente acuminado, 3-nervado, 6.5-7.0 x 3.0-3.5 mm. Sépalos laterales fusionados arriba de la base, oblicuamente ovado-lanceolados, largamente acuminados, ligeramente cóncavos, 3-nervados, 6.5-7.0 x 2.0 mm. Pétalos transversalmente bilobados, 1-nervados, el ápice a veces con un apículo inconspicuo, 0.65 x 2.7-3.3 mm. Labelo trilobado, láminas oblicuamente ovado-oblongas o lanceoladas, extremos distales incurvados, 1.0-1.2 x 0.35-0.45 mm; conectivos oblicuamente cuneados; el apéndice relativamente grande y complejo. Columna oblongo-semiterete, con un par de alas oblongas y oblicuas, 1.3 x ca. 0.75 mm (Salazar y Soto, 1996; Schultes y Dillon, 1959).
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Distribución ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Actual

Regiones Terrestres Prioritarias: Sierra de San Pedro Mártir

En Baja California se encuentra solo en las partes más altas (± 2400 msn) de la Sierra San Pedro Martír, así como en la parte sur de California.

Histórica

MEXICO / BAJA CALIFORNIA / ENSENADA

Abies concolor se encuentra desde Oregón en las montañas azules hasta el sur de California y norte de Baja California al oeste en algunas partes de Idaho, Wyoming y sur de Colorado, así como en el sur de las montañas Rocosas de Utah y Colorado, sur de Arizona, Nuevo México y norte de México.
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Distribución ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Original

Regiones Prioritarias Terrestres: El Momón-Montebello

Chiapas

MEXICO / CHIAPAS / TRINITARIA, LA

Parque Nacional Lagunas de Montebello
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CONABIO
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Ecología ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Historia de vida

De todos los abetos en el oeste, A. concolor es el de mayor distribución, y es reconocido por su alta productividad. El máximo tamaño y mejor desarrollo se encuentra en la parte central de Sierra Nevada, en California, donde el record de especimenes es de 58.5 m de altura y 271 cm en la base. Es generalmente tolerante una variedad de condiciones del suelos, disponibilidad de nutrientes y pH. Es mas dependiente a la disponibilidad de humedad y la temperatura que a los suelos, siendo moderadamente sensitivo a los excesos de humedad en el suelo. Estudios en California y Oregón sobre la producción de conos, indican que tienen un ciclo de 3 a 9 años en condiciones duras; buenas producciones se presentan generalmente cada 2 a 5 años. En sitios extremos, la producción de conos puede presentar patrones variables (Laacke 2004).
El tamaño de las semillas es variable, y un kilo puede contener entre 18,960 y 39,070. Relativamente, pequeñas porciones (20-50%) de las semillas están sanas, inclusive en un año bueno. La producción de semillas varía con la edad del árbol, tamaño y dominancia; las semillas germinan en la primavera, después de derretirse la nieve. En general, los abetos blancos se establecen al germinar en la sombra parcial, pero una vez establecidos crecen favorablemente con luz completa. Es el menos tolerante a la sombra que otros abetos verdaderos (Laacke 2004).
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Ecología ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Historia de la vida

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

Lepanthes guatemalensis es una hierba perenne, de vida relativamente corta, epífita, con crecimiento simpodial y floración semélpara.
Biología floral. La poca información disponible indica que la especie muestra un sistema de polinización por engaño. La polinización es por seudocopulación, la cual es realizada por avispas (Blanco, com. per.). Las flores mimetizan el cuerpo de las avispas hembras y los insectos machos son atraídos a ellas, los cuales al hacer el intento de cópula, remueven el polinario que se pega al tórax del macho, para que posteriormente éste lo deposite en otra flor. Cada tallo es capaz de producir una inflorescencia por varios años consecutivos.
Cuando en Montebello aún sobrevivía la población, ésta estaba representada por unos cuantos individuos depauperados. Nunca se observaron plántulas, por lo que el reclutamiento de nuevos individuos debió ser muy bajo.
En algunas especies de Lepanthes que son simpátricas con L guatemalensis en la Meseta Central de Chiapas, se observaron fluctuaciones temporales en sus tamaños poblacionales que ocurrían en periodos de unos cuantos años, durante los cuales los eventos de extinción local y recolonización en otros sitios pudieron ser relativamente comunes (Salazar y Soto, 1996). Es probable que estas fluctuaciones tengan que ver con la alternancia de cambios favorables y no favorables para el crecimiento de las plantas (Tremblay, 1997, 2000, 2001).
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Estado de conservación ( Spanish; Castilian )

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NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001

Pr sujeta a protección especial

NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010

Pr sujeta a protección especial
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CONABIO
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Estado de conservación ( Spanish; Castilian )

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NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2001

Pr sujeta a protección especial

NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010

Pr sujeta a protección especial
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CONABIO
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Hábitat ( Spanish; Castilian )

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En bosque mixtos de coniferas principalmente en zonas de suelo profundo y bien drenado, bases de arroyos, zonas pedregosas y en algunos valles de la sierra.

Macroclima

Climas templados Cs(b')e; de tipo Mediterraneo con lluvias en invierno (Nov-Abril) y verano seco de 2200-3000 msnm.
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Hábitat ( Spanish; Castilian )

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MEXICO / CHIAPAS

Lepanthes guatemalensis es una especie mesofítica que habita cerca del cenote de Cinco Lagos, en una topografía cárstica, crece como epífita en sitios sombreados, muy húmedos y bien ventilados, en pendientes muy fuertes, entre 1360 y 1400 m de altitud. No se conocía en vegetación secundaria o muy perturbada, por lo que la destrucción de su hábitat provoca la desaparición de la especie.

Macroclima

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

Los mapas climatológicos reportan para Montebello un clima A(C)m, semicálido húmedo con lluvias abundantes en el verano y con presencia de canícula. La temperatura media anual se encuentra entre las isotermas de 18 y 20° C. La precipitación anual es cercana a los 2,000 mm, el porcentaje de precipitación invernal es entre 5 y 10.2% y la precipitación del mes más seco menor a 40 mm.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Relevancia de la especie ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Relevancia de la especie

Árbol de origen boreal y que encuentra su limite austral en norteamerica en la Sierra San Pedro Martir. Es el unico abeto en la península.
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Delgadillo, R. J. y Camacho Canett, L. C. 2004. Ficha técnica de Abies concolor. En: Delgadillo, R. J. (compilador). Actualización de las especies de plantas incluidas en la NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Herbario BCMEX, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California . Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W037. México, D.F.
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Delgadillo, R. J.
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Camacho Canett, L. C.
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Reproducción ( Spanish; Castilian )

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MEXICO / CHIAPAS

La morfología floral de L. guatemalensis sugiere que la especie es polinizada por un proceso de sudocopulacón, llevado a cabo por avispas. Una vez que la polinización tiene lugar, el fruto se desarrolla y produce de 2,000 a 6,000 semillas, las cuales son dispersadas por el viento.

Fenología

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

La floración se presenta en agosto.

Inicio de floración

MEXICO / CHIAPAS

Agosto.
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CONABIO
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Soto-Arenas, M. A. y Solano-Gómez, A. R. 2007. Ficha técnica de Lepanthes guatemalensis. En: Soto-Arenas, M. A. (compilador). Información actualizada sobre las especies de orquídeas del PROY-NOM-059-ECOL-2000. Instituto Chinoin A.C., Herbario de la Asociación Mexicana de Orquideología A.C. Bases de datos SNIB-CONABIO. Proyecto No. W029. México, D.F.
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Soto-Arenas, M. A.
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Solano-Gómez, A. R.
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Conabio

Comments

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Abies concolor is a western catchall species for firs with green seed cones and with glaucous adaxial leaf surfaces. Many of these populations have long been isolated geographically and genetically. A geographic cluster of populations in Utah has shorter leaves and slightly different terpene patterns than a similar cluster of populations in Colorado and northern New Mexico (J.W. Wright et al. 1971; E.Zavarin et al. 1975). Another large geographic cluster, in southern New Mexico and Arizona, seems to be strongly linked chemically to Colorado populations (E.Zavarin et al. 1975) and morphologically to southern California populations (J.L. Hamrick and W.J. Libby 1972). Northern California populations with pubescent twigs and notched leaves are unique, as are the Baja California populations with very short, thick leaves and about 18 adaxial stomatal rows. In Los Padres National Forest of coastal southern California and in the Cascades of northern California, apparent introgression with A . lowiana (E.Zavarin et al. 1975; J.L. Hamrick and W.J. Libby 1972) has occurred. Many consider A . lowiana (given specific rank in this treatment) as a synonym of A . concolor or place it in an infraspecific rank under that species.
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Description

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Trees to 40m; trunk to 0.9m diam.; crown spirelike. Bark gray, thin, smooth, with age thickening (to 18cm) and breaking into deep longitudinal furrows, often revealing yellowish inner periderm, appearing "corky." Branches diverging from trunk at right angles, the lower often spreading and drooping in age; twigs mostly opposite, glabrous or with yellowish pubescence. Buds exposed, either yellowish and nearly conic (when large) or brownish and nearly globose (when small), resinous, apex rounded to pointed; basal scales equilaterally triangular, glabrous, not resinous, margins entire, apex sharp-pointed. Leaves 1.5--6cm ´ 2--3mm, mostly 2-ranked, flexible, proximal portion ±straight; cross section flat, sometimes slightly grooved adaxially; odor pungent, frequently camphorlike; abaxial surface glaucous, with 4--7 stomatal rows on each side of midrib; adaxial surface grayish green, glaucous, with (7--)12(--18) stomatal rows at midleaf, these usually fewer toward leaf apex; apex usually rounded, sometimes acute or notched; resin canals small, near margins and abaxial epidermal layer. Pollen cones at pollination ± red, purple, or ± green. Seed cones cylindric, 7--12 ´ 3--4.5cm, olive-green, sessile, apex round; scales ca. 2.5--3 ´ 3--3.5cm, pubescent; bracts included. Seeds 8--12 × 3mm, body tan; wing about twice as long as body, tan with rosy tinge; cotyledons 5--7. 2 n =24.
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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Habitat & Distribution

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Coniferous forests; 1700--3400m; Ariz., Calif., Colo., Idaho, Nev., N.Mex., Oreg., Utah; Mexico in Baja California, Sonora.
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Synonym

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Picea concolor Gordon & Glendinning, Pinetum, 155. 1858
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Flora of North America Vol. 2 in eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden. Accessed Nov 12, 2008.
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Brief Summary

provided by EOL authors
The firs are large, stately conifers with single trunks, whorled branches and very symmetrical cone shaped habits. Firs can be distinguished from other conifers by the combination of flat needles which are whitish beneath, and upright cones which stay on the tree and disintegrate after the seeds have been shed, leaving behind a single spikelike axis for a while. White fir has yellowish green first year branchlets, needles that are bluish green above, and rough, pale gray bark. The needles are about 2 in (5 cm) long with a pair of whitish bands on the underside. They appear to grow in two ranks on the branchlets, resulting in flattened sprays of foliage. The upright cones are cylindrical, about 5 in (13 cm) long and purplish green. White fir can get over 100 ft (30.5 m) tall and its conical spirelike crown becomes more columnar with age. Young trees are usually branched to the base, but large specimens are often devoid of branches for a third of their height. In cultivation, expect white firs to get 40-60 ft (12-18 m) tall. This is a very popular ornamental conifer and quite a few cultivars of varying habits and sizes have been named.
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Culture

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White fir tolerates a wide range of soil types, preferring those slightly on the acidic side. These are long lived, but still fast growing trees, reported to grow 50-60 ft (15-18 m) in the first 30-60 years; after that the growth rate slows dramatically. Don't prune firs except to remove the occasional double leader; they do not fill in with new branches after pruning. Light: White fir can tolerate a little light shade, but it does best in full sun. Moisture: Firs do best on north-facing slopes and should be protected from drying winds. White fir requires a moist soil and a moderately humid climate. They do best where winters are long. with moderate to heavy snowfall. White fir cannot be grown in dry climates. Hardiness: USDA Zones 4 - 7. Firs cannot be grown in hot climates. Propagation: The firs are difficult to start from cuttings. White fir is propagated from seed, which should be stratified under cool, moist conditions for several weeks. The cultivars are usually grafted onto seedling rootstock. White firs do not begin producing cones and seeds until about 40 years of age. On average, they have abundant seed crops every five years.
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Usage

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White fir is a popular ornamental in Canada and the northern U.S. In general, firs cannot tolerate drought, heat and air pollution, but white fir does a little better in each respect than most, and is the best fir for most landscape applications. They are excellent specimen trees for moderate to large landscapes. The fastigiate, weeping and dwarf cultivars are interesting novelties for smaller landscapes. 'Compacta' is especially desirable. The wood of white fir is very soft and coarse grained, and used mainly for paper pulp and shipping crates. Lacking a distinctive odor, the wood was formerly made into food containers (especially for butter) prior to the widespread use of plastics.
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Broad-scale Impacts of Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: density, duff, forest, fuel, fuel loading, litter, shrub, tree

The effects of fire on white fir vary with size and age of tree, stand density, fuel loading and fire conditions.

Prescribed low-intensity summer surface fires in mixed conifer forests of Crater Lake National Park, Oregon, resulted in high mortality of small white firs [303]. Similarly, prescribed, low-intensity fall surface fires in a giant sequoia-mixed conifer forest in Kings Canyon National Park, California, resulted in mortality of 91% of trees less than 6 inches (15 cm) dbh, 39% of trees 6-12 inches (15-30 cm) dbh, and 5% of trees larger than 12 inches dbh [168].

Greater reduction in density is obtained in stands with higher prefire densities. In white fir stands with dense vegetation, consisting of both young stands of pure white fir and open stands of white fir with a shrub understory, fires burned at high intensity and killed most trees in the area studied in the Marble Mountains of California. In lower density forest stands of white fir with old-growth characteristics, fires were of low intensity and burned down rotten logs and standing snags with very little damage to the canopy trees [305]. Prescribed fires resulted in an increase in the density of giant sequoia at the expense of white fir [164,165,169].

Greater mortality of mature trees could be expected in stands with a deep litter layer, since smoldering of the duff for long periods after the fire has passed kills the moderately shallow roots of white fir [4].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
More info for the terms: basal area, cover, crown fire, density, fire frequency, fire severity, fire suppression, forest, frequency, fuel, fuel moisture, prescribed fire, seed, severity, shrub, shrubs, stand-replacing fire, tree, wildfire, woodland

The response of white fir to fire is inconsistent and may vary with fire
frequency and severity, associated vegetation in the postfire community, location of seed
trees, postfire insect and disease effects, and postfire browsing by animals.
Mean annual post-fire mortality of 17.8% in white fir was related primarily to
fire-caused crown scorch and possibly fine root mortality in Sequoia National
Park [233]. White fir is considered more fire resistant than its associated
species at high elevations, but less resistant than associated species at low
elevations [178,219].
Tree associates Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine are favored by more
frequent fires [345]. If the time between fires is long enough, white fir
seedlings can germinate
and establish under brush cover and thus establish crown
dominance over time [65,178,211].


In the mixed conifer zone of the Sierra Nevada, white
fir seedling are often abundant under montane chaparral shrubs that form brushfields
after high severity crown fires. Conard and Radosevich [65] found
white fir reproducing abundantly on shrub-dominated sites, with a combined
seedling and sapling density ranging from 445 to 4,453 per acre (1100-11,000/ha)
where crown fires had occurred 38 to 62 years earlier. Densities of both
snowbrush ceanothus and manzanita were higher on burned than on unburned and on
logged than on unlogged plots [329]. Fire severity can be an
important determinant of shrub response in white fir stands. Preharvest burning
in a 70-year-old white fir stand in northeastern California resulted in
410,000 snowbrush ceanothus seedlings/ha in moderate-consumption
burns, and 94% seed mortality in more severe burns - killing seeds to a depth
of 10 cm in the soil [330,331].


Minnich [218] studied conifer reproduction on
burned areas in mixed conifer forests in the San Gabriel and San Bernardino
mountains of southern California. He found that seeds originating from outside
the burned area were responsible for abundant white fir production on burns
older than 10 years, but that reproduction was scant on burns less than 5 years
old. Similarly, no white fir seedlings established within 5 years of a crown fire
in the Sierra Nevada, even though several mature trees survived the fire
and thus provided a seed source [65]. Another Sierra Nevada study found
negligible white fir reproduction 17 years following a stand-replacing
fire, even though a seed source was readily available [51]. Less than 1 year following
underburning in a giant
sequoia grove, white fir seedling establishment in June was abundant, with 39%
survival in October [6].


Most mortality in white fir after the 1st year postfire in mixed conifer
in southern Oregon was associated with bark beetles [303].


Near the Plumas National Forest, prescribed fire in a mixed-conifer-California
black oak forest with a white fir component successfully reduced
fuel load. When a wildfire burned through the site previously burned under
prescription, fire severity and fire suppression costs were less compared to
adjacent land where fire had been excluded [221]. For further information
on this study, see the
Research Paper
by Moghaddas [221].


Fall prescribed fire on the Tharp Creek Watershed of Sequoia National Park
produced 16.4% and 17.8% mean annual mortality for all size classes of white fir
on 2 white fir-mixed conifer sites that were monitored for 5 years after fire.
Mortality was concentrated in the subcanopy.
Probability of mortality increased with percentage of crown killed and decreased
with DBH. Basal area changes were also monitored before and after the fire.
Compared to the unburned control, mean percent change in white fir basal area decreased an average of 0.10% on 1 site and
increased 0.61% on the other. From 1989 to 1994 (includes 1 year of prefire data),
percent change in white fir basal area was reduced an average of 4.97% and 6.03%
on the 2 burned sites compared to the control site [233]. For more information, see
a summary of the study in Fire Case Studies.


For further information on white fir's response to fire, see these Research Project Summaries:



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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Common Names

provided by Fire Effects Information System Plants
white fir

California white fir

Rocky Mountain white fir
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Cover Value

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More info for the terms: cover, forest, hibernation, shrubs, tree

White fir's evergreen foliage provides good hiding cover year-round and is usually continuous from the ground upward on trees less than 8 to 10 inches (20-25 cm) dbh [148]. White fir stands of this nature provide excellent hiding cover for large wildlife species such as deer, elk, and black bear [141,187]. If enough shrubs are present in the understory to provide adequate hiding cover, mature white fir forests are used by deer during fawning and by elk during calving [149,174].

In mixed conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada, cavity-nesting birds prefer white fir snags over the snags of associated trees. Cavity nesters using white fir snags include the American kestrel, mountain chickadee, brown creeper, mountain bluebird, house wren, tree swallow, northern flicker, and several nuthatch, sapsucker and woodpecker species [252]. Other forest songbirds nest within white fir foliage. Hollowed trunks of older trees are used by several species of mammals such as black bears, for hibernation; American martens, for dens and rest sites; and bushy-tailed woodrats, flying squirrels and other small mammals for cover [185,240]. Most bear dens in Yosemite National Park are found in the hollowed trunks of white fir [202].
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Description

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More info for the terms: association, tree

White fir is a large, native, coniferous tree. Mature white fir trees in the central Sierra Nevada are 140 to 180 feet (43-55 m) tall, and 40 to 80 inches (1-2 m) dbh, but may grow larger [104,186]. Rocky mountain white fir rarely exceeds 125 feet (38 m) tall or 3 feet (0.9 m) in diameter [104]. Bark on young trunks is smooth, gray and blistered with resin vesicles, becoming thick, hard and deeply furrowed into scaly ridges with age [71,162].

The crown of young trees is symmetrical and sharp-pointed, becoming irregular and rounded at the summit [162]. California white fir has a narrow, cylindrical, almost spire-like crown [185,186]. Rocky mountain white fir tends to have a broader crown [185]. White fir branches are short and stout, with leaves 1.2 to 2.8 inches (3-7 cm) long and generally curved upward. Branches are arranged in whorls of 4 or 5, which are repeatedly branched in one plane to form flat, horizontal sprays. Buds are blunt and resinous [71]. In Arizona white fir stands, braches reach nearly to the ground if the trees are widely spaced, and in more dense stands, half or more of the trunk is often bare [162].

The rooting habit of white fir is usually fairly shallow, but appears to be adaptable to local conditions: deep and intensive where soil conditions permit, to shallow and widespread where rocks or seasonal water tables limit effective soil depth. There is no strong tendency to maintain a single deep taproot although rapid taproot development is critical for survival of new germinants in a dry summer climate. White fir is susceptible to wind throw following partial cutting. Root diseases may contribute to lack of wind firmness. Root grafting between firs is common and is a factor in the spread of root rots [178]. Effects of mycorrhizal associations have been explored and appear to be important in white fir, especially for establishment and early growth on poor sites. It appears that bare mineral soils promote the association [22,178].

White fir is thought to be a slow growing species [157,178,219]. It can survive for exceptionally long periods as a suppressed tree and still respond to release by increasing growth dramatically. White fir may reach ages of 300-400 years. Old growth characteristics in Southwest are given by [295]. Information on productivity of white fir is available [178,201,263].

The varietal differences in California and Rocky Mountain white fir are based on differences in morphological and chemical characteristics, such as needle tip shape and stomatal arrangement [40,133] and terpene content [124,178]. 

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Fire Ecology

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More info for the terms: fire exclusion, fire regime, fire tolerant, forest, frequency, fuel, fuel continuity, fuel moisture, habitat type, mesic, seed, severity, shrubs, stand-replacement fire, stand-replacement fire regime, succession, tree, understory fire, understory fire regime, woodland

FIRE REGIMES: White fir occurs in a variety of forest and habitat types that evolved with a variety of FIRE REGIMES. Thin-barked and resin blistered, with drooping lower branches, young white fir is highly susceptible to fire, and mature trees are only moderately fire tolerant. White fir is an aggressive, shade-tolerant species that will seed into the understory of low-elevation ponderosa or Jeffrey pine stands or into mixtures of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, quaking aspen, and southwestern white pine [185]. On these sites, its numbers were previously controlled by frequent surface fires. With fewer fires in the last century, it is becoming a major stand component at elevations and on sites where historically it was minor [178]. At mid-elevations in the mixed conifer and white fir zones, fires may have burned in a pattern of different severities, including patches where most of the moderately susceptible trees such as white fir, survived [25], and patches where white fir stands were completely destroyed [201]. This type of fire regime creates a forest mosaic of stands with varied structures, species compositions, and seral stages. White fir is also a component of forest communities that evolved with less frequent, stand-replacing fires. The following discussion provides examples from white fir communities that evolved with mixed, understory, and stand-replacement fire regimes.

The primary range of white fir is in the mid-elevation, mixed conifer and white fir zones in California and the central and southern Rocky Mountains. These forest types may be characterized by a mixed fire regime, with fires of variable frequency and severity [25], with some sites experiencing frequent surface fires [7], and others experiencing infrequent crown fires. Mean fire intervals are generally intermediate to intervals in understory and stand replacement regimes, ranging between 30 and 100 years [25]. Mean fire intervals in Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forests are estimated to range between 5 and 30 years, and varied in response to ignition source, fuel accumulations, fuel moisture and burning conditions [333]. Any given location within a mixed fire regime could experience some stand-replacement fires and some nonlethal fires along with a number of fires that burned at mixed severities, creating mosaic patterns of stand structure and fuels [25,215,305]. Low severity fires thin understory regenerating trees, while more severe crown fires may knock succession back to herbs and shrubs. Thus, past burn mosaics tended to increase the probability that subsequent fires would also burn in a mixed pattern. Complex mountain topography also contributed to variable fuels and burning conditions that favored nonuniform fire behavior [25]. After decades of fire exclusion, much of the landscape mosaic has aged and advanced successionally, and patches of late successional forests with large accumulations of dead and living fuels have coalesced, increasing likelihood of fires of unusual size and severity [25,54,169,209,286,287,288,316]. This shift toward landscape homogeneity may adversely affect biodiversity, and may also be perpetuated as the probability of large, high-severity fires increases with continued fire suppression [339]. Much of the living fuels in these forests are small white firs and other shade tolerant species, filling in the understories with dense thickets and increasing fuel continuity and fire ladders of resinous foliage, often in cylindrical crowns that may lead to crown fires when they do burn [178,186,247,288]. Fuel loadings in this type may vary widely due to stand history and site productivity [25,331].

There is evidence that a mixed regime may have been important for perpetuation of giant sequoia groves in the Sierra Nevada [25,296]. Giant sequoia groves burned every 2-10 years for the last 3000 years and have not burned in 100-130 years [289,290,296]. The more mesic, mid-elevation, mixed conifer forests of California formerly experienced low to moderate severity wildfires every15 to 30 years [288,333]. Other areas that may have had mixed fire regimes include the Marble Mountains of northern California [305]; the mixed conifer zone in the montane forests of the Madrean borderlands; the Animas Mountains of southwest New Mexico [297]; mixed conifer forests in the Jemez Mountains, New Mexico [308]; the white fir/Rocky Mountain maple habitat type in Arizona and New Mexico [232,295]; the high elevation, white fir/forest fleabane habitat type [295]; the lowest elevations of the subalpine forest in New Mexico [86,157,247]; the mixed conifer zone of the Sandia Mountains, New Mexico [36]; and the white fir zone in the central Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon [3].

White fir is also a component of drier ponderosa and Jeffrey pine habitat types that evolved with an understory fire regime. An understory fire regime is characterized by relatively frequent, low severity fires that result in open, uneven-aged stands consisting primarily of the more fire tolerant species. White fir was not a major component of these stands under this regime, and existed as scattered individuals or small groups that managed to survive to a fire resistant age. Open ponderosa pine, larch and Douglas-fir forests at lower elevations in the west have been extensively harvested and protected from fire resulting in a compositional shift to an unnaturally dense understory of Douglas-fir, grand fir white fir, or incense-cedar [27,185,234]. Areas where this fire regime was important include the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forests of southern Arizona and New Mexico [33,35,68,115,297]; the Sacramento and White mountains of New Mexico [224]; and ponderosa pine stands in central Oregon [253,298]. Because of changes in fuels during the last century, these areas may now experience crown fires when they do burn, with high tree mortality [5].

White fir may also be a component in ecosystems with a stand-replacement fire regime such as western subalpine forests and Douglas-fir/western hemlock forests [25]. The more arid Jeffrey pine forests on the Mojave Desert side of the mountains in southern California may also have a stand-replacement fire regime due to the slow build up of fuels in the arid environment [288]. Evidence of a stand-replacement fire regime in a white fir-Jeffrey pine forest type in the Lake Tahoe Basin is presented by Russell and others [264]. Similarly, the subalpine forests are limited by cold and are also slow growing so fires are naturally infrequent and when they do burn it is usually a stand replacing fire in severe weather [5,288].

The following table provides some fire regime intervals for ecosystems in which white fir occurs. Find further fire regime information for the plant communities in which this species may occur by entering the species name in the FEIS home page under "Find FIRE REGIMES".

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) silver fir-Douglas-fir Abies amabilis-Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii > 200 California montane chaparral Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. 50-100 [59] curlleaf mountain-mahogany* Cercocarpus ledifolius 13-1000 [28,272] mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub C. l.-Quercus gambelii western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70  Rocky Mountain juniper J. scopulorum Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to > 200  blue spruce* P. pungens 35-200  pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 59] Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* P. contorta var. latifolia 25-300+ [24,260] Sierra lodgepole pine* P. c. var. murrayana 35-200  Colorado pinyon P. edulis 10-49 Jeffrey pine P. jeffreyi 5-30 western white pine* P. monticola 50-200  Pacific ponderosa pine* P. ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47  Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine* P. p. var. scopulorum 2-10 Arizona pine P. p. var. arizonica 2-10 [59] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) Populus tremuloides 7-120 [59,125,213] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [24] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [59] coastal Douglas-fir* P. m. var. menziesii 40-240 [59,229,259] California mixed evergreen P. m. var. m.-Lithocarpus densiflorus-Arbutus m. California oakwoods Quercus spp. oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. canyon live oak Q. chrysolepis California black oak Q. kelloggii 5-30 western redcedar-western hemlock Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla > 200 mountain hemlock* T. mertensiana 35 to > 200  elm-ash-cottonwood Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp. 59] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species review
**(mean)

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

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More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [254] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte (undisturbed)
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Habitat characteristics

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More info for the terms: climax, fern, mesic, radicle, soil temperature regimes, xeric

Because of its wide distribution, white fir is subjected to very different climates, soils, animals, plant associates and other environmental factors from place to place [186].

Rocky Mountain white fir grows on high mountains with precipitation ranging from 20 to 35 inches (510-890 mm). California white fir grows in cold, high elevations and warm-to-hot low elevations with precipitation ranging from 35 to 75 inches (890-1900 mm), but grows best in the southern Cascades and western Sierra Nevada, where precipitation is between 39 and 49 inches (990-1240 mm) [178]. Within the mixed conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada, white fir tends to occupy the more mesic sites, such as northern exposures, at lower elevations, and the more xeric sites at upper elevations [111,263]. In Utah, white fir typically occupies cool and dry northern exposures [201,345]. In the Southwest, white fir occupies numerous topographical settings, and local conditions can vary from cold and moist to warm and dry [83]. Winter snowpack provides the majority of the moisture at high elevations, with fall and early spring rains providing most of the moisture at lower elevations [178]. The upper latitudinal limit of white fir may coincide with a mean maximum January temperature of about 30 to 32 degrees Fahrenheit (-1 to 0 °C) [201]. White fir is sensitive to both frost damage and, occasionally sun scald [178]. White fir is also moderately susceptible to ozone damage [157]. White fir is less tolerant of shade than associated true firs (except red fir), is slightly more tolerant than Douglas-fir, and is much more tolerant than pines or oaks [157,178,219].

California white fir occurs in a wide elevational range, as low as 3,000 feet (900 m) in the North Coast Ranges to over 10,000 feet (3000 m) in the San Bernardino Mountains and the Sierra San Pedro Mártir of Baja, California [186]. Pure white fir forests are common in Oregon and California and they occupy a narrow elevational band from about 4,600 to 5,250 feet (1400-1600 m) in the southern Cascades and from 5,400 to 5,900 feet (1650-1800 m) in the Siskiyou Mountains of northwestern California [111]. In the Sierra Nevada, white fir is a major component of mixed conifer forests occurring between 4,100 to 7,200 feet (1250-2200 m) [263]. Rocky Mountain white fir is found most frequently at elevations ranging from 6,900 to 8,900 feet (2100-2700 m) [178]. In the mountains of southern Arizona, it occupies the highest elevations [188]. Generalized elevational and precipitation ranges are as follows, by state:

State Elevation Range Precipitation Range References California 3,900-9,800 feet (1200-3000 m) [178] Oregon 2,000-6,600 feet (600-2000 m) 14-45 inches (350-1150 mm) [64,146] Utah 5,000-9,200 feet (1500-2800 m) [201,345] Colorado 7,900-10,200 feet (2400-3100 m) [83] Arizona 5,500-9,000 feet (1700-2750 m) [162] New Mexico 6,400-10,200 feet (1950-3100 m) [295]

White fir grows on a variety of slightly to strongly acid soils from almost every type of parent material [14,104,111,178,186,201]. It is generally tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, nutrient availability and pH values. Growth and development are best on moderately deep and well-drained sandy-loam to clay-loam soils, regardless of parent material. California white fir is moderately sensitive to excess soil moisture [178]. White fir is usually found on frigid soil temperature regimes or the warmest of the cryic regimes [247,295]. In the arid Organ Mountains of southern New Mexico white fir occurs as a topo-edaphic climax on the cool upper eastern slopes [84].

White fir grows from canyon bottoms and ravines up to ridgetops on gentle, moderate, and steep slopes of all aspects. It develops best on gentle slopes and level ground [178]. In the Rocky Mountains, white fir, along with blue spruce and Douglas-fir, often replaces the dominant deciduous species near middle elevation streams passing through sheltered valleys or canyons [245].

Botanical associates of white fir that may affect its growth include snowbrush ceanothus, which contains allelopathic chemicals in its foliage that suppress radicle growth of white fir [66,178]. Mycorrhizal associations are thought to protect white fir roots from allelopathic chemicals produced by bracken fern [178].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Habitat: Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

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SAF COVER TYPES [92]:




205 Mountain hemlock

206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir

207 Red fir

209 Bristlecone pine

210 Interior Douglas-fir

211 White fir

213 Grand fir

216 Blue spruce

217 Aspen

218 Lodgepole pine

219 Limber pine

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

222 Black cottonwood-willow

224 Western hemlock

227 Western redcedar-western hemlock

228 Western redcedar

229 Pacific Douglas-fir

230 Douglas-fir-western hemlock

231 Port-Orford-cedar

234 Douglas-fir-tanoak-Pacific madrone

235 Cottonwood-willow

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

244 Pacific ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir

245 Pacific ponderosa pine

246 California black oak

247 Jeffrey pine

249 Canyon live oak

256 California mixed subalpine

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Habitat: Ecosystem

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

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ECOSYSTEMS [117]:




FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES23 Fir-spruce

FRES26 Lodgepole pine

FRES28 Western hardwoods

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES37 Mountain meadows

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Habitat: Plant Associations

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

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KUCHLER [176] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:




K001 Spruce-cedar-hemlock forest

K002 Cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir forest

K003 Silver fir-Douglas-fir forest

K004 Fir-hemlock forest

K005 Mixed conifer forest

K007 Red fir forest

K008 Lodgepole pine-subalpine forest

K010 Ponderosa shrub forest

K012 Douglas-fir forest

K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest

K019 Arizona pine forest

K020 Spruce-fir-Douglas-fir forest

K021 Southwestern spruce-fir forest

K022 Great Basin pine forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K024 Juniper steppe woodland

K029 California mixed evergreen forest

K030 California oakwoods

K031 Oak-juniper woodland

K032 Transition between K031 and K037

K034 Montane chaparral

K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

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SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [275]:




107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

109 Ponderosa pine shrubland

110 Ponderosa pine-grassland

203 Riparian woodland

209 Montane shrubland

210 Bitterbrush

216 Montane meadows

235 Cottonwood-willow

409 Tall forb

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

413 Gambel oak

415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany

418 Bigtooth maple

419 Bittercherry

420 Snowbrush

421 Chokecherry-serviceberry-rose

422 Riparian

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Immediate Effect of Fire

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More info for the terms: fuel, lichen

White fir seedlings, saplings and poles are thin-barked and resin blistered and are highly susceptible to fire damage and kill [178]. Additionally, young trees have low-growing branches that can easily ignite from burning undergrowth, providing a fuel ladder into the crown. Consequently, young white fir are usually killed by even low-intensity, surface fires [29,168,303]. As trees mature and bark thickens, and some self-pruning of lower branches occurs, they become more resistant to fire [345]. However, the tendency to retain some low branches, the moderately shallow roots, and heavy lichen growth on the branches of white fir make it only moderately fire resistant [55]. In larger trees, mortality results from crown scorch, girdled stems from cambial heating, or damage to moderately shallow roots from soil heating [303,328].
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Importance to Livestock and Wildlife

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More info for the terms: association, codominant, cover, forest, shrub, tree

Stands dominated by white fir seldom produce enough forage for domestic livestock grazing except on harvested or open forest sites, or where grasses and sedges dominate the understory [81]. These forests do, however, provide abundant browse and cover for large and small wildlife species [83,295]. Deer, elk, and bear often use white fir habitats as either summer or winter range [2,189]. Mule and black-tailed deer generally eat small amounts of white fir during the spring, fall, and winter, and sometimes larger amounts during the summer [152,177,189]. Mule deer are especially fond of succulent, new white fir growth in the spring [114,178,185]. Spring browsing of white fir by deer can be particularly heavy when small white firs are the only green food available; all of the current or previous year's growth may be consumed [119]. Porcupines enjoy the bark of white fir, and may destroy saplings in their enthusiasm [138,185,201]. Rodents feed on the cambial tissue of white fir in preference to that of Douglas-fir. During the winter, mice feed on the leaders of small white firs near snow level. In the spring, they feed on seedlings, sometimes destroying a large proportion of the current year's seedlings [138,201]. Pocket gophers also feed on white fir seedlings in the winter and spring [157,178]. White fir needles are an important part of the diet of blue grouse [127,197]. White fir seeds are eaten by several species of small mammals and birds including grouse [183,323], chipmunks and mice [324], flying squirrels [346], chickadees, crossbills, and Clark's nutcracker [127,197]. In the southern Cascades and Sierra Nevada, the Douglas squirrel cuts and caches white fir cones during late summer and fall, before the cones are fully mature [106,114,185]. Hollow logs and snags of white fir can be important to various birds and animals for foraging in the interior wood [240].

There are about 33 species of mammals commonly present in the white fir forest type in California, and of these 7 are generally associated with mature forests [178]. Hollowed-out trunks of old white fir trees, dead or alive, are denning sites for mammals ranging form weasels to porcupines to black bears [186]. In one study, abundance of white fir had a strong positive association with California mountain beaver habitat use [42]. About 123 species of birds are found in the white fir type of California and southern Oregon, about 50 of which are associated primarily with mature forests, and many of which use mature white fir trees and snags for foraging, roosting, nesting and/or breeding [155,178,212,228,318]. These include bald eagles [78,293], northern spotted owls [107,182,304], California spotted owls [44,61,128,319,320], flammulated owls [321], brown creepers and red-breasted nuthatches [1]. In Oregon, mature white fir forests provide nesting and feeding habitat for important bird species, such as the goshawk, pileated woodpecker, white-headed woodpecker, and, when near lakes or streams, osprey and bald eagle [149]. Reptiles in white fir forests are represented by 17 species, mostly at lower elevations, 8 of which are associated with mature forests [178].

In the southwest, desert bighorn sheep and white-tailed deer occasionally browse white fir [183,277]. In the Rocky Mountains, red squirrels cache white fir cones during late summer and fall before the cones are fully mature [106,114,185]. Some white fir habitat types in the Southwest and Utah provide habitat for black bears and cougars and have high cover value for wildlife [190,295]. In riparian woodlands in the Southwest, white fir is often a codominant species with hardwoods such as maples. These woodlands tend to be small in area, but provide unique and critical habitat for many species of wildlife such as the Arizona gray squirrel, river otter, zone-tailed hawk, common black hawk, American dipper, summer tanager, bullock oriole, yellow warbler, Arizona alligator lizard, Sonoran mud turtle, and canyon tree frog [12,101,295]. At the southern end of its range in the Madrean region, white fir occurs in "island" habitats at the uppermost elevations of isolated mountain ranges, providing small areas of geographically unique habitat for wildlife. An example are the wildlife species present in the Rincon Mountains of Saguaro National Monument, Arizona, presented by Davis and Sidner [73]. The highly variable stand structure with multi-storied shrub layers in some southwestern white fir habitat types provides increased microhabitat diversity for birds [101,295]. White fir forests in the Southwest provide habitat for Mexican spotted owls in Arizona, New Mexico [116,194], and Utah [342]; goshawks in Arizona [70,196,256]. Thick-billed parrots, reintroduced in the mountains of southeastern Arizona, occur in mixed-conifer forests with white fir [280]. Several species of amphibians and reptiles may be found in white fir montane mixed conifer forests such as that at upper elevations in Saguaro National Monument [193]. Two species of endangered salamanders (Jemez Mountains salamander and Sacramento Mountain salamander) in New Mexico are found in mixed conifer forests dominated by white fir [251].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Life Form

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Tree
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Nutritional Value

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White fir browse is low in protein [92].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Occurrence in North America

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AZ CA CO ID ME MA

NV NM OR UT WY

MEXICO

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Other uses and values

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White fir is a valuable ornamental tree. It is often used for ornamental plantings in rural and urban landscapes in northern US cities, because it is attractive and frost-hardy [185,202]. White fir is not, however, very tolerant of air pollution and therefore seems best suited for suburbs or rural areas [175]. White fir eventually attains great size and is best grown in parks or other open public areas. White fir is used extensively in the Christmas tree industry [148,178]. Native Americans used the needles for tea [149].
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Palatability

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Because they contain resins, terpenes, and other substances that make the
foliage irritating to the digestive tract, most conifers are not particularly
palatable to grazing animals. White
fir may be slightly palatable to goats [267].
Immature foliage is enjoyed by mule and black-tailed deer [119,189]. White fir seeds are palatable to numerous species of small
rodents, although seeds of Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, and sugar pine are
preferred [106,250].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Plant Response to Fire

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More info for the terms: competition, seed, tree

Following stand-replacing fires, white fir reestablishes via wind-dispersed seed. Exposed mineral soil seedbeds created by fire favor initial seedling establishment in white fir [159], but seedling survival is better in partial shade [39]. Therefore, seedlings establish soon after fire if a canopy remains [170], but may take several years to establish if the canopy has been removed.

Fire may encourage growth in white fir by eliminating competition. Evidence from a fire-scarred white fir stump in Oregon shows that after being scarred as a sapling-sized tree, it had growth release [3]. However, trees damaged or weakened by fire are also more susceptible to attack by insects and disease. Fire scars may allow a point of entry for a variety of disease and decay organisms [178,337], and fire-weakened trees that are attacked by insects can be killed within a few years [303].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Regeneration Processes

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More info for the terms: cone, cover, layering, litter, monoecious, natural, seed, stratification, tree

White fir reproduction is by seed, and it shows no tendency to reproduce by sprouting or layering. Cuttings can, however, be rooted with or without hormones [178]. White fir is monoecious. The male strobili are 0.2 to 0.4 inches (6-9 mm) long and are densely grouped on the underside of 1-year-old twigs about mid-crown. Female cones are 3 to 5 inches (7-12 cm) long and borne erect on 1-year-old branches, usually in the uppermost crown.

Cone and seed production: Cone and seed production vary with tree size, age and dominance. White fir trees can begin bearing cones at 40 years and continue beyond 300 years [178]. The best producers are mature, healthy dominants in the 12 to 35 inch (30-89 cm) d.b.h. range [120,178]. Cone production is higher on trees near openings [119] and on trees following release [178]. Immature trees can produce heavy seed crops, but their production is more erratic than that of mature trees [119,178]. Pole-sized trees in dense stands will not produce cones unless their leaders reach full sunlight. In mixed conifer forests of California only 4% of understory white fir between 3.6 and 7.5 inches (9.1-19 cm) in diameter produce cones [104]. In Oregon and California, heavy seed crops in white fir are borne on a 3- to 9- year cycle, with fair to good crops occurring every 2 to 5 years, and bumper crops every 5 to 9 years [178]. In the Rocky Mountains, medium to heavy seed crops are produced every 2 to 4 years [104]. Cone production patterns may be different on extreme sites [110,120,157,178]. Because cones are borne on the uppermost part of the crown, any top damage caused by insects, diseases or mechanical agents (e.g. wind and snow) directly reduces cone production. Cones produce about 185 to 295 seeds apiece [104,119]. Seed numbers can reach 600,000/acre (1.5 million/ha) or more where white fir is a site dominant [112,178], and as many as 220,000 where white fir is a minor overstory component [181].

Seed predation: Insects that feed on cones and seeds may seriously reduce yield. Seed chalids typically destroy 8 to 10% of white fir seeds and have destroyed up to 60% of a crop [108]. Cone moths, cone midges, and cone maggots also reduce yields [119]. In California and Oregon, the Douglas squirrel cuts and caches cones, but generally takes less than 1% of the cone crop [106].

Seed dispersal: White fir seeds are released and disseminated by wind as the cone disintegrates on the tree in the fall. Because white fir seed has a short, broad wing relative to its weight, if falls more rapidly and travels a shorter distance from the tree than many of its associated species. Downwind seed spread into an opening is about 1.5 to 2 times the height of the tree [119,178,203]. A small percentage of seeds may be transported greater distances by strong or gusty winds [218].

Germination: After release in the fall, white fir seeds overwinter in or under the snow. This cold, moist stratification is required for germination [108]. Germination of white fir seeds occurs in the spring immediately following snowmelt. Where snowpack is deep, seeds may germinate in, on, and under the snow [157,178]. Of white fir seeds sown in November in white and red fir stands in the Sierra Nevada, 82 to 86% of all germination occurred by May 9, and 96 to 98% by May 22 [39]. Only a small proportion (20-50%) of seeds are viable [178]. Thus, germination is low, averaging about 37% . Under controlled conditions, white fir seeds may be stored for 5 or 6 years, but under natural conditions seeds do not remain viable over 1 year [108].

Seedling establishment and survival: White fir seeds that germinate in the snowpack, above the ground, rarely survive, therefore, seeds that fall before the permanent snow cover are more likely to produce seedlings [119]. Germination and early growth are best on bare mineral soil, though seedlings may establish in soils covered by a litter layer [71,100]. Root systems developed in mineral soil without organic layers are longer, heavier, and have more mycorrhizal root tips than those grown in soil with organic layers [22,178]. Seedlings generally establish best in partial shade, and can establish easily under a closed canopy in dense shade [178]. Shade favors seedling survival in white fir because seedlings are very sensitive to soil drying and heating. Damping off fungi, cutworms, drought, heat, trampling and browsing are responsible for most seedling mortality [39,119]. White fir seedlings are more susceptible to spring frost damage and deer browse than many associated species [157,178,219].

Growth: Once established, white fir grows best in full sun [178]. Shade-tolerant white fir saplings can, however, endure decades of suppression under a closed canopy or in dense brushfields. Leader growth is very slow under these conditions, and suppressed plants may be only 3 feet (0.9 m) tall at 50 years [91]. White fir dramatically increases in diameter and height growth when canopy openings are created, or when its height surpasses surrounding vegetation [100,181].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [43]:




1 Northern Pacific Border

2 Cascade Mountains

3 Southern Pacific Border

4 Sierra Mountains

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

7 Lower Basin and Range

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Successional Status

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More info for the terms: climax, cover, density, fire regime, fire suppression, fire-free interval, forest, herbaceous, mesic, natural, seed, series, shrub, shrubs, stand-replacement fire, succession, tree, xeric

California white fir is a major climax component throughout the mixed conifer forests within its range [178,225]. White fir reproduces abundantly under conditions of dense shade, and it is an aggressive pioneer species as well [201]. Successional relationships of white fir are complicated by floristic differences over its large range of occurrence [188].

The white fir series in the Southwest can have varying mixtures of white fir, with conifer associates dependent on moisture and temperature relationships of the site and stage of succession. The more successful reproduction of white fir is diagnostic of the white fir series [188,232]. Mosaics of contrasting successional stages are considered to be the result of both insects and past fires [247]. Within the mixed conifer type, white fir tends to achieve climax dominance on moist sites [111,328] and in localized areas with long fire-free intervals that give white fir the chance to mature to a point where it is moderately fire-tolerant. In mixed conifer forests with a natural fire regime of low-intensity surface fires, white fir is kept from attaining climax dominance because it is more fire sensitive than its coniferous associates [2,13]. Thus, many white fir habitat types are in mid-successional stages, with various seral species dominating the overstory and white fir dominating the reproductive size classes [40,111]. Seral associates that often dominate a site include ponderosa pine [83,115,185,247,295], Douglas-fir [83,115,185,295], southwestern white pine [185], Gamble oak, New Mexico locust [295], California black oak [113], quaking aspen [40,153,178,230,245,247], and lodgepole pine [245].

White fir will seed into the understory of ponderosa pine stands or in mixtures of ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir, quaking aspen, and southwestern white pine [185]. Many habitat types in the white fir series in the Southwest are dominated by Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine in mid-seral stages, with white fir steadily gaining dominance as succession proceeds [83,295]. Lodgepole pine is a common seral species in the white fir type, with seedlings of white fir in the understory that are less than a meter in height but in excess of 100 years old. Both aspen and ponderosa pine are present at sites where high intensity fires have occurred or where ground fires have slowed or prevented replacement by white fir and Douglas- fir [247]. With fire suppression, white fir is able to mature in the understory with a concurrent decrease in pine reproduction and eventually begins to replace the pines as they succumb to root diseases and bark beetles, resulting in a gradual change in structure and composition in white fir habitat types [27,40,113,115,184,186,258]. White fir will eventually dominate if the fire-free interval is sufficiently long to allow trees to grow to a fire-resistant size, unless another disturbance event gets them. In a Jeffrey pine forest in South Lake Tahoe, California, a disease outbreak killed the Jeffrey pine overstory, releasing the small white firs in the understory which went on to become the predominant species on the site. They then suffered extreme moisture stress form drought and succumbed to a fir engraver attack causing them to die rapidly [270].

It appears that white fir may be an early colonizer of disturbed sites, gradually increasing in dominance over time [34,139,263]. In northeastern California, overgrazing in big sagebrush- steppe communities allowed for the invasion and establishment of white fir in an unusually xeric setting for white fir [258]. White fir may also be a pioneering species in upper elevation meadows within its type where it has been observed to invade by growing near older lodgepole pine [111,178]. White fir is an early seral species at the lowest elevations of the subalpine forest in New Mexico [247].

Following overstory removal (logging or stand-replacement fires) in mixed conifer or white fir forests of the southern Cascades and Sierra Nevada, sites are often dominated by montane chaparral shrubs, primarily ceanothus and manzanita, but also mountain whitethorn, currant and gooseberry (Ribes spp.), chinquapins, and some oaks [65,104,111,149,178]. Seeds of some species may lie dormant in the forest floor for as long as 300 years and germinate following removal of overstory. Sierra mountain misery and grasses may also assume significant roles [178]. Given a nearby seed source and absence of further burning, white fir seedlings can establish under shrubs within about 10 to 20 years [65,218]. A 30 year delay in tree recruitment was observed after a stand-replacement fire in the Lake Tahoe Basin [264]. Given the continued absence of fire, white fir will eventually overtop the shrubs and dominate the site, creating pure stands in otherwise mixed conifer areas [65].

Following overstory removal in mixed conifer or white fir forests in the Southwest, herbaceous species usually dominate the vegetation for the first few years of succession, and diminish in late seral conditions as shading inhibits their growth [83,101,134,157,247,295]. Seral shrubs and trees that follow herbs include aspen, New Mexico locust, Rocky Mountain maple, bush oceanspray, and Gambel oak, and may dominate the site for the next 40 to 100 or more years [83,101,134,153,157,247]. Gradually tree seedlings, including white fir, become established, although growth is slow under the canopy. Scattered conifers emerge above the shrubs after 50 to 100 years. This stage persists for another 50 or more years, with a closed stand of replacement conifers not fully developed until 100-200 years after the fire, the time depending on numerous factors such as shrub density, climatic conditions, availability of tree-seed sources, soil conditions, livestock, wildlife, and human use. Old growth is characterized by conifer overstory and low shrubs in the understory, with possible sparse herbaceous cover [134,157,247]. White fir may establish quickly on mesic sites and dominate early seral stages, while conifers such as southwestern white pine, limber pine and ponderosa pine may dominate the early seral stages on xeric sites [13,225,295].

Crane [69] presents successional trends of white fir habitat types in Colorado that appear reasonable for Utah types as well. In Utah, white fir becomes the dominant climax tree on characteristically cool and dry sites that are usually northern exposures [345]. These sites are apparently too warm and dry for subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce. Although white fir reproduces most abundantly under shade, it also invades open slopes within the mountain-brush zone [201]. White fir and Douglas-fir are replacing brush species on some northern exposures, and, in the absence of fire, these sites may develop into conifer forests [63].

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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Synonyms

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Abies lowiana (Gordon) A. Murray [102]
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Taxonomy

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The currently accepted scientific name of white fir is Abies concolor (Gord.
& Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr. (Pinaceae)
[71,89,144,145,146,158,178,191,334,336]. Two varieties are recognized
[71,144,185,186,191,310] based on differences
in morphological and chemical characteristics [124,178,191]:



Abies concolor var. concolor   Rocky Mountain white fir

Abies concolor var. lowiana (Gord.) Lemm.  California white fir




California white fir naturally hybridizes with grand fir (Abies grandis)
in a belt extending from north-west California, across Oregon, and into central
Idaho [146,178,186,347,348,349]. Under controlled conditions, white fir has successfully been crossed
with other firs. Fertile hybrids were produced with the following crosses [278,283]:




Abies concolor var. lowiana X Abies grandis




Abies concolor var. concolor X Abies religiosa



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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Value for rehabilitation of disturbed sites

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White fir can be planted on disturbed sites within forest vegetation types where it naturally occurs. It is a good soil stabilizer and may be particularly useful on roadcuts [249]. Fir seedlings exhibit very slow initial growth, and are therefore usually outplanted as 2- to 3-year-old seedlings or 3- to 4-year-old transplants [108]. Transplanting nursery stock is more successful than direct seeding [249]. White fir can be propagated from stem cuttings, which root easily when treated with a rooting medium [88]. Because this wide-ranging tree exhibits a large degree of genetic variation, seed or planting stock for rehabilitation projects is best provided by a local source [214,249]. Methods for collecting, processing, testing, storing, and planting white fir seeds have been discussed in detail [90,108].
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Wood Products Value

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Historically white fir was considered undesirable for timber. Now that the availability of premium timber species has declined, white fir is being recognized as a highly productive and valuable tree species and is widely used in the wood products industry [109,148,178]. White fir is a general, all-purpose, construction-grade wood used extensively for solid construction framing and plywood, and to a lesser extent, for pulpwood [148,278]. It is also used for poles and pilings because of its straight grain and low taper, but requires large amounts of preservatives because the heartwood decays rapidly. It is poorly suited for firewood because of its low specific gravity and heat production (80% as much heat by volume as Douglas-fir produces), but it is used for firewood anyway [278].
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Zouhar, Kris. 2001. Abies concolor. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/abicon/all.html

Distribution ( Spanish; Castilian )

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Chile Central
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Associated Forest Cover

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The most common associates of California white fir in the mixed conifer forests of California and Oregon include grand fir (Abies grandis), Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii), tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), sugar pine (P. lambertiana), Jeffrey pine (P. jeffreyi), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and

California black oak (Quercus kelloggii) (21,47). In the central Sierra Nevada, white fir is a major associate of the relatively rare giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) (21). Species mix varies with elevation, site, and latitude. White fir is more abundant on the cooler, wetter sites.

California white fir is a major climax component throughout the mixed conifer forests within its range. It is displaced successionally only at its northern limits in Oregon, where western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and perhaps western redcedar (Thuja plicata) replace white fir as a climax species on moister sites (22). At the upper elevational limits of the mixed conifer forest, white fir dominates, occasionally forming pure stands. Still higher, white fir mixes with California red fir (A. magnifica) in transition to the red fir type. In the southern Sierra Nevada, white fir in this transition zone generally tolerates canopy closure better and dominates on nutrient-rich sites (46). Lodgepole pine is common in these white fir and mixed fir forests, growing around meadows and along streams. Individuals of Jeffrey pine, western white pine (P. monticola), and sugar pine are scattered through the forest (47). In Oregon, scattered western hemlocks are also found (22).

At low elevations California white fir is an aggressive, tolerant species that appears to have been held in check by frequent natural fires. Extensive fire control efforts, however, have reduced fire frequency. As a result, white fir is becoming a major stand component in California at elevations and on sites where originally it was minor (48). Dense fir regeneration beneath older stands of less tolerant trees is common and threatens a major change in species composition. In many places, especially with giant sequoia, such changes are undesirable, and control measures, including reintroduction of fire, are necessary.

In Arizona and New Mexico, Rocky Mountain white fir is a major climax component in 11 major habitat types and phases (42). Listed in sequence-from warm and dry low-elevation to cool and moist high-elevation environments-these habitat types include ponderosa pine/Arizona fescue, white fir/Arizona fescue, white fir-Douglas-fir, white fir-Douglas-fir/Gambel oak, white fir-Douglas-fir/Rocky Mountain maple, and blue spruce-Engelmann spruce/forb (Senecio spp.). White fir is a minor climax component in the Douglas-fir-southwestern white pine/grass (Muhlenbergia spp.), blue spruce-Douglas-fir, and blue spruce/sedge (Carex spp.) habitat types. Additional associates are subalpine and corkbark firs. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) is a major seral species in many areas.

A variety of woody brush species can assume major importance in much of the white fir range, particularly in mixed conifer zones. Following drastic disturbance, brush can quickly occupy and dominate a site. Common species include mountain whitethorn, deerbrush, and other Ceanothus species, manzanita (Arctostaphylos spp.), currant and gooseberry (Ribes spp.), several chinkapins (Castanopsis spp.), and a few oaks (Quercus spp.) (21,22). In addition to severely competing for light and moisture (14), at least one Ceanothus species contains allelopathic chemicals in its foliage that suppress radicle growth of white fir (12). Mycorrhizal associations are thought to protect white fir roots from allelopathic chemicals produced by bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum) (1). Other species of lesser vegetation that sometimes assumes a significant role includes bearclover (Chamaebatia foliolosa) and several grasses. Seeds of some species can lie dormant in the forest floor for as long as 300 years and germinate following removal of forest cover by fire or harvesting. In areas where brush is vigorous, tree seedlings that can survive and grow under brush cover are favored, provided the time between fires is long enough (e.g., 20 years) to allow the fir to establish crown dominance (13,21,40). Pure stands of white fir frequently begin this way.

White fir is represented in at least 14 forest cover types of western North America. Pure stands are White Fir (Society of American Foresters Type 211) (19). It is a major component in Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer (Type 243) and is also found in the following types:

206 Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir
207 Red Fir
210 Interior Douglas-fir
216 Blue Spruce
217 Aspen
229 Pacific Douglas-fir
231 Port Orford-cedar
237 Interior Ponderosa Pine
244 Pacific Ponderosa Pine-Douglas-fir
245 Pacific Ponderosa Pine
247 Jeffrey Pine
256 California Mixed Subalpine

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Climate

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Rocky Mountain white fir grows on high mountains, typically with long winters, moderate to heavy snowpacks, and short growing seasons. Annual precipitation ranges from about 510 mm (20 in) to slightly more than 890 mm (35 in). In the central Rocky Mountains, rainfall is distributed evenly during the summer months. In Arizona and New Mexico, summer tends to be wetter than spring (37).

California white fir grows in cold, high elevations and in warm-to-hot low elevations. Precipitation ranges from 890 mm (35 in) to 1900 mm (75 in) or more per year. California white fir grows best in the southern Cascades and western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, where precipitation is generally between 990 and 1240 mm (39 to 49 in). Locations receiving 1500 mm (59 in) or more are not uncommon, however (21). Essentially, all precipitation occurs during the nongrowing season. Fall and early spring rains are a major portion of the precipitation at lower elevations and winter snowpacks provide more than 80 percent of the moisture at high elevations (57). Occasional summer thundershowers are usually light.

Growth studies on Swain Mountain Experimental Forest, in the southern Cascades of California, indicate that high-elevation stands of California white fir grow best in years with precipitation as low as 38 percent of normal (45). At these elevations low precipitation usually means early snowmelt and a longer growing season (54).

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Damaging Agents

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White fir saplings and poles are susceptible to fire damage or kill, but trees become more resistant to both with age and size. White fir is considered more fire resistant than its associated species at high elevations (37,41), but less resistant than its associates at low elevations (47). Fire scars, commonly found in old-growth stands, provide an entry court for a variety of disease and decay organisms.

White fir is sensitive to spring and fall frosts. Spring frosts can kill developing buds as well as foliage. Damage to established trees, other than Christmas trees, is not usually significant. On some sites, repeated damage to new fir growth can give a competitive advantage to more resistant species. Cold damage to mature trees takes the form of frost cracks and ring shake. Frost cracks are associated with some rot and decay loss (9).

Sudden rises in temperature during May and early June can cause damage nearly identical to that of spring frosts. Sun-scalding following thinning is rare in mature trees, although young, thin-barked trees are susceptible. When white fir boles are injured, recovery is slow (9).

Compared to its associated species, white fir is moderately susceptible to ozone damage. Although fir grows faster than associated species in southern California, diameter growth is affected by oxidant damage as much as that of Ponderosa pine (43). White fir is more resistant to fluoride damage than Douglas-fir or ponderosa pine (37).

As intensive management of this productive species increases, so will the importance of mechanical injury. Studies in Oregon and California have shown that conventional logging techniques for thinning or partial cutting damaged 22 to 50 percent of the residual stand. Seventy-five percent of these wounds were at ground level, where infection by some decay-causing fungus is almost certain (3). Loss of volume by time of final harvest can be considerable.

Two parasitic plants, white fir mistletoe (Phoradendron bolleanum subsp. pauciflorum), a true mistletoe, and white fir dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium abietinum f. sp. concoloris), cause major damage to white fir (9). In Arizona, Mexico, and the central to southern Sierra Nevada of California, white fir mistletoe is a serious problem on large old trees. Heavy infections cause spike tops, loss of vigor, and increased susceptibility to bark beetle attack. Dwarf mistletoe is a major problem from the southern Sierra Nevada north into Oregon. It is found elsewhere throughout the native range of white fir in coastal and southern California, Nevada, and Arizona (39,63).

One-third of the white fir stands in California are severely infested by dwarf mistletoe and the parasite is present in other forest types that contain white fir. Heavily infected trees suffer significant growth losses and are prone to attack by Cytospora abietis, a fungus that kills branches and further reduces growth. Because of reduced vigor, infected trees are more susceptible to bark beetle attack and various diseases (50,51). Heart rots, entering through open mistletoe stem cankers, increase mortality of old-growth trees through stem breakage.

Changes in wood structure in the large stem bulges caused by dwarf mistletoe infections reduce the strength of lumber produced. Current lumber grading practices, however, are not adequate to identify the affected wood (61).

Dwarf mistletoe need not be a problem in young managed stands because three factors make damage subject to silvicultural control. The parasite is host specific: white fir can be infected only by A. abietinum f. sp. concoloris, which in turn can parasitize only one other fir, grand fir. Small trees (less than 1 m [3.3 ft] tall) are essentially free from infection even in infested stands. Infected young firs free from new overstory infection outgrow the spread of mistletoe if height growth is at least 0.3 m (1 ft) per year (50).

Annosus root rot (Heterobasidion annosum) is present in all conifer stands and may become a major disease problem as management of white fir increases. Once established, the disease affects trees within a slowly expanding, circular infection center. Spread from tree to tree is through root contacts. New infection centers begin by aerial spread of spores and infection of basal wounds and freshly cut stumps. In true fir, annosus root rot usually does not kill directly but produces considerable moisture stress and loss of vigor that predispose the tree to attack by bark beetles, notably Scolytus. Direct damage resulting from infection is restricted primarily to heart rot of butt and major roots, leading to windthrow and stem breakage (9). Some degree of control is available through silvicultural means and use of borax on freshly cut stumps.

Other rots of major significance include the yellow cap fungus (Pholiota limonella), Indian paint fungus (Echindontium tinctorium), and white pocket rot (Phellinus pini) (9). Yellow cap fungus causes heavy losses from butt rot and enters through fire scars and basal wounds (9). Indian paint fungus is a major heart rot organism. This fungus probably infects fir in the same manner it does western hemlock (3). Entry is through branchlets less than 2 mm (0.08 in) in diameter. The fungus can remain dormant for up to 50 years before being activated by injury to the tree (18). Rot commonly extends 3 m (11 ft) below and 6 m (20 ft) above each characteristic fruiting body (4). No effective control is known although trees less than 40 years old are relatively free of rot because they have so little heartwood. In the white fir-grand fir complex of Idaho, the fungus was found in 97 percent of the trees that had decay. Almost 80 percent of the decay in old-growth grand fir-white fir stands of eastern Oregon and Washington is caused by Indian paint fungus; in California, it is much less common (9).

Insects from seven genera attack white fir cones and seeds. Two cause damage with considerable loss of seed. Seed maggots (Earomyia spp.) are the most abundant and damaging. The fir cone looper (Eupithecia spermaphaga) covers almost the entire range of white fir and periodically causes considerable local damage (27).

Although many insects feed on white fir foliage, few cause significant damage as defoliators. The most destructive of these is the Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata). Over most of its range the tussock moth shows equal preference for true fir and Douglas-fir foliage. Epidemic outbreaks, although sporadic, are explosive and damaging. In California, white fir is the preferred host, but outbreaks have not reached the severe levels sustained elsewhere (27). Occasionally, localized outbreaks result in increased stand growth as mortality of subordinate trees "thin" an overdense stand (59,60).

The western spruce budworm (Choristoneura occidentalis) is the most destructive defoliator in western North America, causing serious damage in Canada and the Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast regions of the United States. Some outbreaks are short lived, but some continue for 20 years or more. Although initial damage is to new foliage and buds, trees can be completely defoliated in 4 to 5 years. Ultimate damage ranges from minor growth loss to major tree mortality over extensive areas, depending on severity and duration of the outbreak (27).

A similar species, the Modoc budworm (Choristoneura retiniana [= viridis]), is endemic to the Warner Mountains of northeastern California and southeastern Oregon. Damage to California white fir in the Warner Range has been sporadic and light (27).

The New Mexico fir looper (Galenara consimilis) is restricted to New Mexico and can be a serious problem locally on white fir. Weevils of the genus Agronus attack foliage of young trees and may cause concern with intensive forest management. Sawflies (Neodiprion spp.) are generally not a problem-but are potentially damaging in dense stands of young fir. In California, a species of Neodiprion sawfly has reached epidemic levels locally on white fir. White fir needleminer (Epinotia meritana) covers the full range of white fir and can cause extensive branch kill predisposing trees to bark beetle (Scolytus) attack (27).

Cutworms (Noctuidae) can be a problem in nurseries and, more especially, in natural regeneration areas. Cutworms have been responsible for more than 30 percent of the seedling mortality in California (21,28).

The most damaging white fir pest is the fir engraver beetle (Scolytus ventralis). This bark beetle is found over the entire range of white fir and causes serious damage nearly everywhere. Mortality equivalent to an estimated 2.4 million m³ (430 million fbm) of growing stock is caused each year in California alone. Losses during epidemics are even larger (27). The fir engraver can attack any tree, but those suffering from root rot infections or tussock moth attack are especially vulnerable. In general, anything that reduces tree vigor, such as mistletoes, Cytospora, drought, or fire, increases susceptibility to attack (20). Several other bark beetles-including one species of Pseudohylesinus and two species of Scolytus, the roundheaded borer (Tetropium abietis) and the flatheaded fir borer (Melanophila drummondi)- frequently join the fir engraver in attacking and killing individual trees. In epidemic conditions, however, mortality is primarily caused by the fir engraver. Maintenance of stand health and vigor is the only known control (27).

Locally, small rodents can cause significant loss of seed and occasionally girdle seedlings. Pocket gophers limit regeneration in many areas, particularly clearcuts, by feeding on fir seedlings during winter and spring. Pocket gophers in combination with meadow voles and heavy brush can prevent conifer establishment for decades (21,37). Pocket gopher damage occurs on trees of all ages and sizes. Feeding on root tissues at the root crown has girdled saplings up to 12.7 cm (5 in) in diameter at breast height (d.b.h.). In at least one place, such feeding has resulted in death of mature trees up to 93.7 cm (36.9 in) d.b.h. (32). Direct control of pocket gopher is difficult and expensive. Indirect control by habitat manipulation offers some possibilities.

Spring browsing of succulent growth by deer and other big game animals can retard height growth for many years. Normally, trees are not killed, and most can grow rapidly once browsing pressure is removed. In managed stands, however, reduced height growth can result in significant economic loss. Damage by big game can be severe in the Southwest. Damage from livestock grazing is limited primarily to trampling and appears to be decreasing as the number of cattle on the open range decreases (37).

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Flowering and Fruiting

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White fir is monoecious. The reddish male strobili (cones) are generally less than 1.6 cm (0.6 in) long and are densely grouped on the underside of 1-year-old twigs about midcrown. Female cones are borne erect on 1-year-old branches, usually in the uppermost crown although both male and female cones are occasionally found on the same branch. California white fir flowers in May or June and fertilization occurs shortly thereafter. Flowering of Rocky Mountain white fir at the higher elevations may be delayed and extend into July. Female cones reach full size, 7.5 to 13 cm (3 to 5 in) long, in late summer and turn from greenish or purplish to brown when mature (21,52). Cone specific gravity is about 0.85 when mature (52). The seed matures in September, up to 3 weeks before seedfall (44).

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Genetics

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White fir is an adaptable and genetically plastic species. Throughout its range, elevational and latitudinal gradients are reflected as changes in stomatal number and arrangement, needle shape, growth rate, phenology, (34), and trachied length (16).

Interspecific crossbreeding is reasonably easy between fir species within the same group (e.g., A. concolor and A. grandis within Section Grandes), but difficult to impossible between sections (15,35,55). In the northern portion of its range, California white fir intergrades and hybridizes freely with grand fir, both being in the Section or group Grandes (15). The species are morphologically, ecologically, and chemically distinct (20,31). They differ in stomatal number and reaction to moisture stress (63). Grand fir grows most abundantly on cool, moist sites and white fir on warmer, drier sites. Grand fir has a higher incidence of heart rot than white fir. Grand fir bark has a red-purple periderm and is high in camphene. White fir bark periderm is yellowish and camphene content is low (62). Hybrid trees are intermediate in all of these characteristics, including incidence of heart rot, which may be more closely related to cool, wet sites than to genetic differences (26).

Over a large area from northwestern California through central Oregon and into central Idaho, identification of the two species is difficult and sometimes impossible. White fir in this region is called "grandicolor."

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Growth and Yield

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The capacity of white fir to produce large volumes per unit area was recognized before the species was considered of commercial value. As recently as 1962, white fir was regarded as undesirable in forests managed for timber. The productivity of fully stocked, 100-year-old stands in California (53,59) and eastern Washington and Oregon (11) on good [Site Index 27 m (90 ft)] and average [Site Index 18 m (60 ft)] sites is evident (table 1). The unusual productivity is possible, at least in part, because this species can grow in stands of high basal area. In mixed-conifer stands, white fir still demonstrates a high level of productivity, although its height growth begins to decrease earlier than that of associated species (10,17).

Table 1- Volume in white fir stands in California and eastern Oregon and Washington at age 100 (11,53,59) Site index¹
and location
Basal area
Volume 27.4 m or 90 ft m²/ha ft²/acre m³/ha ft³/acre California 108 471 1,372 19,600 Oregon and   Washington 80 349 1,066 15,230 18.3 m or 60 ft California 91 397 805 11,500 Oregon and   Washington 67 291 633 9,039 ¹Average height of dominant trees at base age 50 years.
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Reaction to Competition

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White fir has several features of major silvicultural significance. The species is classified as shade tolerant, more so than most of its mixed conifer associates (41). Relative shade tolerances of red fir and white fir in the high-elevation burning transition zone are uncertain. In the northern end of their respective ranges, shade tolerance may be affected by the evident exchange of genetic material with associated species-white fir with grand fir (A. grandis) and red fir with noble fir (A. procera) (2). White fir is capable of rapid growth to a large size and grows best in full sunlight. It can survive for exceptionally long periods as a suppressed tree and still respond to release by increasing growth dramatically. The time period before growth begins to accelerate varies depending on crown condition at time of release (36). Seed production increases following release even on dominant trees (38).

Because of these features, white fir is a major management consideration in any mixed conifer stand where it is a component. Partial cutting and most shelterwood cuttings favor white fir and increase its importance in the stand. Prescribed burning in areas where white fir is not desired may be the only reasonable way to control its abundance. Underburning in groves of giant sequoia to control young white firs and to create seedbeds for giant sequoia reproduction is a special example.

To manage pure stands of white fir is relatively easy and, with intensive management, young stands can be extremely productive. White fir can be regenerated naturally or artificially. Natural regeneration can be achieved through clearcutting as long as the maximum downwind width of openings does not exceed 1.5 to 2 times the height of trees left as seed sources. Shelterwood cuttings have been successful in establishing natural regeneration (30). On sites where brush competition is a problem, planting under shelterwood has promise. Because of high growth rates in dense, even-aged stands, even-aged management is the likely choice. Uneven-aged management is theoretically possible, however, because of the species' shade tolerance and response to release. The long period of extremely slow growth under shade and the incidence of dwarf mistletoe infestation make uneven-aged management questionable, however.

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Rooting Habit

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Root systems of mature forest trees, including white fir, have not been the subject of much research. What little is known has been gleaned from observations of windthrown trees. Mature white fir rooting habit appears to be fairly adaptable: deep and intensive where soil conditions permit or shallow and widespread where rocks or seasonal water tables limit effective soil depth. There is no strong tendency to maintain a single deep taproot, although rapid taproot development is critical for survival of new germinants in the dry summer climate.

White fir is susceptible to windthrow following partial cutting, especially when marginal codominant and lower crown classes are left as the residual stand. Root diseases contribute significantly to lack of windfirmness. Root grafting between firs is common and is frequently demonstrated by living stumps (21). Root grafting is also a factor in the spread of root rots.

Effects of mycorrhizal associations are beginning to be explored. Early information indicates that these root and fungi relationships are significant, especially in establishment and early growth on poor sites, and that bare mineral soil promotes the association (6).

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Seed Production and Dissemination

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Studies of white fir seed and cone production in Oregon, California, and the Rocky Mountains indicate that heavy crops are borne on a 3- to 9-year cycle (25,29,37). Adequate to good crops are produced more often, generally every 2 to 5 years. On extreme sites, cone production patterns may be different.

Seed size varies widely and a kilogram may contain between 18,960 and 39,070 seeds (8,600 to 17,700/lb) (50). Relatively small proportions (20 to 50 percent) of white fir seed are sound, even in good seed years (21,52). Seed numbers, however, can reach 1.5 million/ha (600,000/acre) or more (24,30). Seed production varies with tree age, size, and dominance. The best, most reliable producers are mature, healthy dominants in the 30- to 89-cm (12- to 35-in) d.b.h. range (29). White fir trees can begin bearing cones when only 40 years old and continue beyond 300 years (45). Immature trees can produce heavy seed crops, but their performance is more erratic than that of mature trees (28).

Because cones are borne almost exclusively in the uppermost part of the crown, any top damage caused by insects, diseases, or mechanical agents (for example, wind and snow) directly reduces cone production. Large old trees are prone to such damage. Trees that have lost their tops, however, can frequently develop new terminals and resume cone bearing.

Studies in California indicate that mature dominants along the edge of a clearcutting produce between 1.5 and 6.7 times as many cones as similar trees in adjacent closed stands (28). Regeneration data, also from California, indicate that mature trees left in seed tree or shelterwood cuts increase seed production (42).

Seeds are released as cones disintegrate on the tree. The white fir seed has a relatively short, broad wing for its weight and falls more rapidly than a pine or spruce seed. Because most dissemination is by wind, the distance of seed spread is more limited than that of many associated species. Reliable downwind seed spread into an opening generally is limited to 1.5 to 2 times tree height (28).

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Seedling Development

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White fir seeds germinate in the spring immediately following snowmelt (37) or, where snowpacks are deep, in, on, and under the snow (23). In the Rocky Mountains, white fir germination in spring is in contrast to that of other major species in the mixed conifer type that do not germinate until the summer wet season (37). Seeds that germinate several centimeters above ground in the snowpack rarely survive after snowmelt. Seeds that fall before permanent winter snow cover, therefore, are more likely to produce seedlings. Germination and early growth are best on bare mineral soil. Root systems developed in mineral soil without organic layers are longer, heavier, and have more mycorrhizal root tips than those grown in soil with organic layers (6). White fir seedlings are epigeal.

In general, white fir becomes established best in partial shade, but once established grows best in full sunlight. It is less tolerant of shade than associated true firs (except red fir), is slightly more tolerant than Douglas-fir, and is much more tolerant than pines or oaks (37,41,56). Because white fir can survive and grow beneath heavy brush cover and eventually overtop the brush and dominate the site, many pure stands exist in otherwise mixed conifer areas (36).

Previously it was thought that white fir growth was extremely slow for the first 30 years. It appears now, however, that slow growth beyond 5 years is not inherent and may be caused by environmental conditions, such as prolonged shading and browse or frost damage. White fir is more susceptible to spring frost damage and deer browse than many associated species (37,41).

Radial growth begins before height growth and lasts longer. Height growth begins later in white fir than in associated species at mid-elevations and lasts only about 6 weeks. Occasionally, in California, height growth begins again in late summer. The resulting succulent growth is subject to frost kill. White fir trees from low-elevation seed sources are twice as likely to increase height growth in response to moisture supplied during the summer than are white fir from high elevations or red fir from any elevation (33).

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Soils and Topography

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Throughout its natural range, white fir grows on a variety of soils developed from almost every kind of parent material. These materials include recent volcanic and igneous rocks of nearly all compositions, large areas of intrusives (mostly granites), and various metamorphics, including serpentine. Sedimentary materials range from limestone, sandstone, and shale to unconsolidated Pleistocene lake deposits (5,21,22). These soils fall into the Inceptisol, Entisol, Alfisol, and Ultisol soil orders. Alfisols are most frequently found at the lower elevations in California where white fir is a component of the Sierra Nevada Mixed Conifer Type.

White fir is generally tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, nutrient availability, and pH values. It seems to be more dependent on moisture availability and temperature than on soil series. In at least one area of summer-dry Mediterranean climate, productive stands of white fir may utilize water obtained from shattered or otherwise porous bedrock well below the maximum soil depth (8). Growth and development are best on moderately deep and well-drained sandy-loam to clay-loam soils, regardless of parent material. High-elevation fir forests respond strongly to nitrogen fertilizer because low temperatures inhibit decay and natural release of nitrogen from the forest floor (49).

California white fir is moderately sensitive to excess soil moisture and invades high-elevation meadows by growing near older lodgepole pine, taking advantage of relatively dry ground created by the pine roots. A similar pattern of meadow invasion can develop where radiational heat loss on clear, cold nights is significant. In these situations, the frost-sensitive fir is protected by the pine foliage.

The species grows on various types of terrain, including the extremely steep and unstable slopes of the geologically young Coast Ranges in northwestern California. It develops best on gentle slopes and level ground. Elevations range from a minimum of 600 m (1,970 ft) in the headwaters of the Willamette River of central Oregon to a maximum of almost 3400 m (11,150 ft) east of the continental divide in central Colorado. Lower and upper elevational limits increase from north to south and from west to east as temperatures, distance from the Pacific Ocean, or both increase. Most California white fir in the Sierra Nevada is found at elevations between 1200 and 2100 m (3,900 and 6,900 ft). It grows at elevations of 1500 to 3000 m (4,900 to 9,800 ft) in the San Bernardino Mountains of southern California. Rocky Mountain white fir is found most frequently at elevations between 2100 and 2700 m (6,900 and 8,900 ft) (21,22,47).

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Special Uses

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White fir is a general, all-purpose, construction-grade wood used extensively for solid construction framing and plywood. A significant portion of the Christmas trees used in California are young white fir. These trees are harvested from natural stands, from regeneration areas where the trees are cultured for as long as 11 years before harvest, and from areas used specifically for Christmas tree production.

Detailed and exact wildlife censuses for large areas do not exist, and any listing of species numbers associated with a major forest type is an approximation. There are, however, about 123 species of birds found in the white fir type of California, 50 of which are associated primarily with mature forests. Perhaps because of the dense nature of most true fir forests in California, there are only 33 species of mammals commonly present and of these only 7 are generally associated with mature forests. Reptiles are represented by 17 species, mostly at lower elevations. Only eight are regularly associated with mature forests (58).

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Vegetable Reproduction

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White fir shows no tendency to reproduce by sprouting or layering, but cuttings can be rooted with or without hormones. The relative ease with which cuttings from juvenile material can be rooted provides an opportunity to produce genetically selected planting stock at relatively low cost.

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Distribution

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The native range of white fir extends from the mountainous regions of the Pacific coast to central Colorado, and from central Oregon and southeastern Idaho to northern Mexico (21).


- The native range of California white fir (left) and
Rocky Mountain white fir (right).


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Brief Summary

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Pinaceae -- Pine family

Robert J. Laacke

Long considered undesirable for timber, white fir (Abies concolor) is finally being recognized as a highly productive, valuable tree species. White fir reaches its best development and maximum size in the central Sierra Nevada of California, where the record specimen is 58.5 m (192 ft) tall and measures 271 cm (106.6 in) in d.b.h. (7). Large but not exceptional specimens, on good sites, range from 40 to 55 m (131 to 180 ft) tall and from 99 to 165 cm (39 to 65 in) in d.b.h. in California and southwestern Oregon and to 41 m (134 ft) tall and 124 cm (49 in) in d.b.h. in Arizona and New Mexico (37).

Needle form and terpene content vary sufficiently across the wide range of the species to warrant definition of two varieties: the typical var. concolor, white fir, often called Rocky Mountain white fir, occupies the eastern and southwestern part of the range; var. lowiana (Gord.) Lemm., California white fir, grows in the western range (31). In this paper, "white fir" applies to both varieties.

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Physical Description

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Tree, Evergreen, Monoecious, Habit erect, Trees without or rarely having knees, Primary plant stem smooth, Tree with bark smooth, Tree with bark rough or scaly, Young shoots 3-dimensional, Buds resinous, Leaves needle-like, Leaves alternate, Needle-like leaf margins entire (use magnification), Leaf apex acute, Leaves < 5 cm long, Leaves > 5 cm long, Leaves < 10 cm long, Leaves grey-green, Leaves not blue-green, Leaves white-striped, Needle-like leaves flat, Needle-like leaves not twisted, Needle-like leaf habit erect, Needle-like leaf habit drooping, Needle-like leaves per fascicle mostly 1, Needle-like leaf sheath early deciduous, Needle-like leaf sheath persistent, Twigs glabrous, Twigs pubescent, Twigs not viscid, Twigs without peg-like projections or large fascicles after needles fall, Berry-like cones orange, Woody seed cones > 5 cm long, Bracts of seed cone included, Seeds tan, Seeds winged, Seeds unequally winged, Seed wings prominent, Seed wings equal to or broader than body.
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Birrəng ağ şam ( Azerbaijani )

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ABŞ -ın cənub-qərbi və Şimali Meksika dağlarında, dəniz səviyyəsindən 2000–3000 m-ə qədər hündürlükdə kölgəli yamaclarda və çayların kənarında bitir. 350 ilə qədər yaşayır. Hündürlüyü 40 (60) m-ə çatan, gövdəsinin diametri 1,8 m-ə qədər, konusvarı, sıx çətirli ağacdır. Yaşlandıqda çətiri a.ağıya doğru əyilir. Gövdəsinin qabığı boz, qalın və hamardır. İynəyarpaqları hər tərəfdən göyümtül-yaşıl, üstü orta damarcığın ətrafında 6-8 ağızcıq xətli, alt tərəfi kilin hər tərəfindən 5-8 ağızcıq xətlidir. Tumurcuqların diametri 3–5 mm-dir. Toxum qabıqları əsasən pazşəkillidir. Tək və qrup əkinlərində payızda iynəyarpaqları saraldıqda daha dekorativ görünür. Sərt qış aylarında donur, ancaq əkin yeri düzgün seçildikdə yüksək dekorativ keyfiyyətliyini saxlayır, qozalar və cücərən toxumlar əmələ gətirir. Tək və qrup əkinləri üçün yararlıdır. Quraqlığa davamlıdır. Mədəni şəraitdə 1831-ci ildən becərilir. Respublikamızda qışa davamlıdır. Qış qələmlərinin 10 %-i kök atır. Yaşıllaşdırmada az istifadə edilir. Bakı şəhərində 1998-ci ildən mədəni şəraitdə becərilir.

Məlumat mənbələri:

Деревья и кустарники СССР. т.3.1954; Флора Азербайджана. т.5. 1954; Azərbaycanın ağac və kolları. III cild. 1970; Azərbaycanın “Qırmızı” və “Yaşıl Кitabları”na tövsiyə olunan bitki və bitki formasiyaları. 1996; Azərbaycan florasının konspekti. I-III cildlər. 2005; 2006; 2008.

İstinadlar

  1. “Azərbaycan dendraflorasi” I cild, Baki, “Elm”, 2011, 312 səh.

Mənbə

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Birrəng ağ şam: Brief Summary ( Azerbaijani )

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ABŞ -ın cənub-qərbi və Şimali Meksika dağlarında, dəniz səviyyəsindən 2000–3000 m-ə qədər hündürlükdə kölgəli yamaclarda və çayların kənarında bitir. 350 ilə qədər yaşayır. Hündürlüyü 40 (60) m-ə çatan, gövdəsinin diametri 1,8 m-ə qədər, konusvarı, sıx çətirli ağacdır. Yaşlandıqda çətiri a.ağıya doğru əyilir. Gövdəsinin qabığı boz, qalın və hamardır. İynəyarpaqları hər tərəfdən göyümtül-yaşıl, üstü orta damarcığın ətrafında 6-8 ağızcıq xətli, alt tərəfi kilin hər tərəfindən 5-8 ağızcıq xətlidir. Tumurcuqların diametri 3–5 mm-dir. Toxum qabıqları əsasən pazşəkillidir. Tək və qrup əkinlərində payızda iynəyarpaqları saraldıqda daha dekorativ görünür. Sərt qış aylarında donur, ancaq əkin yeri düzgün seçildikdə yüksək dekorativ keyfiyyətliyini saxlayır, qozalar və cücərən toxumlar əmələ gətirir. Tək və qrup əkinləri üçün yararlıdır. Quraqlığa davamlıdır. Mədəni şəraitdə 1831-ci ildən becərilir. Respublikamızda qışa davamlıdır. Qış qələmlərinin 10 %-i kök atır. Yaşıllaşdırmada az istifadə edilir. Bakı şəhərində 1998-ci ildən mədəni şəraitdə becərilir.

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Avet de Colorado ( Catalan; Valencian )

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Aquest article o secció no cita les fonts o necessita més referències per a la seva verificabilitat.

L'avet de Colorado (Abies concolor) és un avet blanc, natiu de les muntanyes occidentals de Nord-amèrica, a altituds de 900 a 3.400 msnm. És un arbre conífera de mig a gran sempreverd que aconsegueix de 25 a 60 m d'altura i amb més de 2 m de diàmetre de tronc.

Les fulles són tipus agulla, txates, de 2,5 a 6 cm de long. i 2 mm d'ample per 0,5 a 1 mm de gruix, verds a blau verdós glauques a dalt, i amb dues bandes glauques blava-blanques d'estomes sota, punta no aguçada. L'arranjament foliar és en espiral en els àpex, però cada fulla és variablement retorçada en la base, que hi hagués dues o més línies. Els con o estròbils tenen 6 a 12 cm de long. i 4 a 4,5 cm d'ample, verds o púrpures i al madurar brun pàl·lid, amb a prop de 100 a 150 escates; les bràctees són curtes. Les llavors, alades, són dispersades quan els estròbils es desintegren a la maduresa, a prop de 6 mesos després de polinitzats.

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Jedle ojíněná ( Czech )

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Jedle ojíněná (Abies concolor) je stálezelený jehličnan původem ze Spojených států amerických a Mexika.

Synonyma

  • Abies grandis varieta concolor
  • Picea concolor
  • Pinus concolor.

Popis

Stálezelený, jehličnatý, rychle rostoucí (více než 30 cm za rok, více než 4,5 m za deset let) strom dorůstající 60 m a dožívající se přes 300 let. Kmen dosahuje průměru 1-2 m. Koruna je kuželovitá (věžovitá), u starších stromů s plochým vrcholem. Větve tvoří s kmenem pravý úhel, spodní se často u starších stromů sklánějí. Borka je zpočátku světle šedá, tenká a hladká, později tloustnoucí (až do 18 cm) a rozpraskaná do podélných brázd, někdy s viditelnou nažloutlou druhotnou kůrou (periderm). Letorosty jsou většinou protilehlé, lysé či s nažloutlými chlupy. Pupeny jsou nekryté, pryskyřičnaté, hnědé a téměř kulovité (když jsou malé), žluté a téměř kuželovité (když jsou již větší), se zakulaceným či špičatým vrcholem; bazální pupenové šupiny jsou ve tvaru rovnostranného trojúhelníka, s pryskyřicí nebo bez ní a s ostrými vrcholy. Jehlice jsou 1,5-6 cm dlouhé a 2-3 mm široké, seshora šedozelenomodrostříbrné (varieta concolor), tmavozelené (varieta lowiana) a někdy rýhované, se 7-18 řadami průduchů (u variety concolor) a 5-9 řadami průduchů (u variety lowiana); zespodu šedomodrozelené; na vrcholu většinou zaoblené (varieta concolor), někdy též ostré či vroubkované (varieta lowiana); většinou se vyskytují ve dvou řadách, jsou srpovitě prohnuté, modrošedě ojíněné ze všech stran, směřující vzhůru a pronikavě vonící. Samčí šištice jsou červenopurpurovonazelenalé. Samičí šištice (šišky) jsou válcovité, 7-12 cm dlouhé a 3-4,5 cm široké, s kulatým vrcholem, zpočátku žlutozelené, dozráváním hnědé, k oběma koncům se zužující. Semena jsou hnědá, 8-12 mm dlouhá a 3 mm široká, s 24 mm dlouhým a hnědým křídlem. Děložních lístků je 5-9 . Strom kvete v dubnu. Semena dozrávají v září a říjnu.

Příbuznost

Jedle ojíněná Abies concolor má dle některých botaniků 2 variety[2] [3]:

  • Abies concolor varieta concolor
  • Abies concolor varieta lowiana (synonyma této variety: Abies lowiana; Abies concolor poddruh lowiana; Picea lowiana).

Výskyt

Domovinou stromu jsou: Spojené státy americké (státy Colorado, Utah, Kalifornie, Nevada, Idaho, Nové Mexiko, Arizona, Oregon a Wyoming); (varieta concolor je rozšířena na západě USA, s výjimkou pohoří Sierra Nevada; varieta lowiana se vyskytuje v pohoří Sierra Nevada (na území států Kalifornie a Nevada) a též v severních pobřežních horách v Kalifornii); a Mexiko (státy Baja California, Chihuahua a Sonora).

Ekologie

Vysokohorský strom, roste v nadmořských výškách 600-3400 m v různých horských půdách odvozených od žuly, čediče, andezitu, pemzy a někdy též pískovce. pH půdy je 6,1-7,8 (mírně kyselé, neutrální, mírně zásadité). Velmi přizpůsobivá jedle, snáší různé klimatické, městské (nicméně nesnáší znečištění ovzduší a patří mezi jednu z nejzranitelnějších jedlí oxidem siřičitým) a pěstební podmínky, mladé stromy jsou pro tenkou borku často zničeny lesními požáry, dospělé stromy jsou již odolnější. Strom má kořeny umístěny spíše do šíře nežli do hloubky, čímž může trpět vývraty, lepší je sázet jej ve větších skupinách a do poloh chráněných před silnými větry. Klima mírně vlhké, s poměrně teplými a suchými léty a studenými zimami. Mrazuvzdorný do −34 °C. Jedle ojíněná tvoří jak monokulturní porosty, tak porosty smíšené s: různými druhy borovic - například s borovicí Jeffreyovou, borovicí Lambertovou, borovicí těžkou a dalšími, s dalšími druhy jedlí - jedlí nádhernou, jedlí vznešenou, jedlí obrovskou, dále s topolem osikovitým Populus tremuloides a jinými.

Jedle ojíněná poskytuje životní prostředí mnoha druhům zvířat: puštíku západnímu, orlu bělohlavému, šoupálku americkému Certhia americana extima, brhlíku americkému, jehlice stromu spásá jelenec ušatý, semeny stromu se živí tetřevi, křivky, ořešník americký Nucifraga columbiana, různí hlodavci a jiní. V některých oblastech Kalifornie je jedle ojíněná agresivní druh, omezuje porost sekvojovce obrovského[4].

Choroby a nepřátelé

Na jehlicích stromu mohou škodit různé druhy z rodu obalečů (Choristoneura) nebo také štětconoš douglaskový Orgyia pseudotsugata, dřevo požírají různé druhy kůrovců (například bělokaz Scolytus ventralis), houba kořenovník vrstevnatý Heterobasidion annosum může škodit na kořenech, dřevo je také napadáno občas různými druhy václavek (Armillaria) a jmelím. Při použití jako vánoční stromek mohou způsobit zásadní problém houby z řádu Rzi Pucciniales, neboť napadený stromek zbytňuje a získává oranžovou barvu.

Symbióza

Pro růst a dobrý zdravotní stav stromu je důležitá symbiotická mykorhiza.

Využití člověkem

Lehké, snadno opracovatelné dřevo se používá ve stavebnictví a k výrobě krabic, beden, dveří, překližky. V Kalifornii je jedle ojíněná používána jako vánoční stromek pro své aroma a dlouhou výdrž jehlic po pokácení stromu. Existuje mnoho kultivarů, zakrslých a jiných, které se běžně pěstují jako okrasné dřeviny v zahradách a v parcích. Domorodí američané (Indiáni) používali strom v medicíně: Jehlice proti revmatismu (koupel v odvaru z jehlic) a plicním onemocněním; pryskyřici z borky k léčení řezných ran, vředů a zánětů a jako plombu do zkažených zubů a po povaření pro léčbu pohlavních nemocí; odvar z borky při léčbě tuberkulózy; též jako čaj. Mimo medicínské využití slouží jako stavební materiál a pro výrobu předmětů do domácnosti.

Ohrožení

Jedle ojíněná není organizací IUCN považována za ohroženou, stav její populace je stabilní a strom se vyskytuje v mnoha chráněných oblastech[5].

Galerie

Odkazy

Reference

  1. Červený seznam IUCN 2018.1. 5. července 2018. Dostupné online. [cit. 2018-08-09]
  2. http://www.conifers.org/pi/Abies_concolor.php
  3. https://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/silvics_manual/Volume_1/abies/concolor.htm
  4. http://botany.cz/cs/abies-concolor/
  5. https://web.archive.org/web/http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/42276/0

Externí odkazy

Rod jedle (Abies) Evropa Afrika Asie Amerika
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Jedle ojíněná: Brief Summary ( Czech )

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Jedle ojíněná (Abies concolor) je stálezelený jehličnan původem ze Spojených států amerických a Mexika.

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Langnålet ædelgran ( Danish )

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Langnålet ædelgran (Abies concolor) er et op til 45 meter højt stedsegrønt nåletræ, der er hjemmehørende i det vestlige USA. I Danmark er det almindeligt plantet i haver og parker og når her en højde på ca. 25 m.

Beskrivelse

Langnålet ædelgran har en stamme, der er ret og gennemgående helt ud i toppen (nogle træer har dog en tilbøjelighed til at danne dobbelte topskud). Ældre træer får afrundet top. Grenene sidder i kranse vandret ud fra stammen. Barken er først grågrøn, men bliver senere grå og glat med harpiksholdige blærer. Knopperne er lysegrå, afrundede og næsten sammenvoksede. Nålene er usædvanligt lange, opadbuede, næsten oprette og grågrønne på begge sider, men med en grøn midterribbe på undersiden. De mangler spids. Koglerne er cylindriske og oprette. De falder fra hinanden, når de bliver modne. Selve frøene modner ikke altid i Danmark, og de spirer noget usikkert.

Rodnettet er kraftigt med dybtgående hovedrødder og fladt udbredte finrødder. Langnålet ædelgran er modstandsdygtig overfor vedsvampe. De knuste nåle lugter kraftigt af terpentin og citron.

Højde x bredde og årlig tilvækst: 25 × 4 m (25 × 10 cm/år). Disse mål kan fx anvendes, når arten udplantes.

Udbredelse

Den langnålede Ædelgran hører hjemme på magre klippeområder med rigelig sne og med tør, veldrænet jord mellem den 43. og den 31. nordlige breddegrad i det vestlige USA.

Voksested

Sierra Nevada i Californien, USA, vokser denne art sammen med bl.a. blå douglasgran, californisk eg, californisk flodceder, coulterfyr, gulfyr, jeffreyfyr, klitfyr (underarten murrayana), mammuttræ, Quercus chrysolepis (en art af eg med kristtornagtige blade), rød ædelgran og storkoglet douglasgran[1]




Note

  1. ^ The Jepson Herbarium: California Vegetation Types (Plant Communities) (engelsk)

Kilde

Eksterne henvisninger

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Langnålet ædelgran: Brief Summary ( Danish )

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Langnålet ædelgran (Abies concolor) er et op til 45 meter højt stedsegrønt nåletræ, der er hjemmehørende i det vestlige USA. I Danmark er det almindeligt plantet i haver og parker og når her en højde på ca. 25 m.

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Kolorado-Tanne ( German )

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Die Kolorado-Tanne (Abies concolor), auch Grau-Tanne genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Tannen (Abies) in der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae).

Beschreibung

Habitus

Die Kolorado-Tanne ist ein immergrüner, relativ schnell wachsender Baum, der Wuchshöhen von über 50 Meter und einen Brusthöhen-Stammdurchmesser (BHD) von über 150 Zentimetern erreicht. Die höchste bekannte Kolorado-Tanne misst 58,5 Meter und hat einen Stammdurchmesser von 271 Zentimeter. Abies concolor var. concolor bleibt kleiner, für die Varietät werden Wuchshöhen von bis zu 41 Metern und ein BHD von bis zu 124 Zentimetern angegeben. Starke Alttannen werden mitunter von Bären als Winterquartier genutzt. Die Kronenform ist pyramidal und harmonisch. Kennzeichnend sind die waagerecht vom Stamm abgehenden Äste. Solitäre Bäume sind bis zum Boden beastet.

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Nadeln von Abies concolor var. concolor im Carson National Forest in New Mexico
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Stammquerschnitt von Abies concolor var. lowiana

Nadeln und Zweige

Auffällig sind die etwa 5 bis 7,5 Zentimeter langen, beiderseitig blau-grünen Nadeln, die kammartig vom Ast abstehen und nach etwa acht bis zehn Jahren abfallen. Besonders auf der Zweigoberseite sind sie leicht bogig aufwärts gerichtet und nach vorne gekrümmt. Die Nadeln sind die längsten aller Tannenarten. Die Zweige sind relativ kräftig, zunächst glatt und von hellgrauer Farbe, später rau und grau bis graubraun. Die Nadeln riechen zerrieben nach Zitrone.

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Abies concolor var. concolor im Carson National Forest in New Mexico
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Abies concolor var. lowiana am Lake Tahoe in Kalifornien

Borke und Holz

Die Borke ist hellgrau und wird zur Basis hin furchig und korkig. Sie kann am Stammfuß bis zu 16 Zentimeter dick werden. Während junge Bäume eine glatte Borke besitzen, bilden alte Kolorado-Tannen unregelmäßige, plattenartige Schuppen aus. Das Holz ist leicht und weich, außerdem recht grobfaserig und wenig dauerhaft. Die Holzfarbe variiert zwischen weißlich und hellbraun, wobei kein Unterschied zwischen Splint- und Kernholz besteht. Es hat eine Rohdichte von 400 bis 420 kg/m³.

Wurzeln

Sämlinge bilden eine Pfahlwurzel aus, die bei Altbäumen nicht üblich ist. Die Art entwickelt auf tiefgründigen Böden ein tiefreichendes Wurzelsystem. Als Mykorrhiza-Partner sind nur Cenococcum geophilum und der Gemeine Erbsenstreuling (Pisolithus arhizus) bekannt.

Blüten, Zapfen und Samen

Mannbar (geschlechtsreif) wird diese einhäusig getrenntgeschlechtige (monözische) Art erst im Alter von etwa 30 bis 40 Jahren. Dann erscheinen in den Blattachseln vorjähriger Zweige die etwa 1,6 Zentimeter langen, rot oder rosafarbenen männlichen Blütenzapfen. Diese befinden sich im mittleren und unteren Kronenbereich. Die weiblichen Blütenzapfen sind im oberen Drittel zu finden. Sie stehen aufrecht, sind teils gelbgrün, teils rot und etwa 3,5 Zentimeter lang. Die Blütezeit erstreckt sich je nach Region von Mai bis Juli.

Im September und im Oktober sind die Samen reif. Die zylindrischen Zapfen sind dann 7,5 bis 13 Zentimeter groß und haben eine hellbraune Farbe. Die geflügelten Samen fallen mit den Zapfenschuppen zu Boden. Die Samen sind 8 bis 12 Millimeter lang und haben 1,5 bis 1,8 Zentimeter breite Flügel. Das Tausendkorngewicht liegt zwischen 25,6 und 52,9 Gramm. Eichhörnchen vergraben ganze Zapfen als Futtervorrat, oft entstehen daraus Naturverjüngungs-Gruppen. Förster nutzen diese vergrabenen Zapfen als Samenquelle.

Chromosomenzahl

Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 24.[1]

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Verbreitungsgebiet der Kolorado-Tanne; grün die var. concolor, blau die var. lowiana

Vorkommen

Die Kolorado-Tanne hat ihr natürliches Verbreitungsgebiet im Westen Nordamerikas. Die Varietät Abies concolor var. concolor besiedelt Höhenlagen der Rocky Mountains von 2100 m bis 2700 m, während Abies concolor var. lowiana mehr auf Bergen nahe der Pazifikküste auf Höhenlagen zwischen 1200 m und 2100 m in der Sierra Nevada und zwischen 1500 m und 3000 m in den San Bernardino Mountains in Südkalifornien zu finden ist. Die Abies concolor var. concolor stellt in den südlichen Rocky Mountains die Klimaxbaumart dar. Optimal für ihre Entwicklung scheinen Nord- und Ostseiten der Gebirge Oregons und Kaliforniens zu sein.

In gemäßigten Klimaten ist die Kolorado-Tanne als Park- und Gartenbaum stark verbreitet, da sie nur geringe Standortansprüche stellt und Trockenheit sowie Frost erträgt. Deshalb gilt sie als eine der besten Stadttannen. Forstliche Probeanbauten in Deutschland blieben ohne Erfolg.

Das Optimum der Kolorado-Tanne liegt für die Varietät Abies concolor var. concolor in Gebieten mit Niederschlägen von 510 bis 890 mm, für die Varietät Abies concolor var. lowiana von 890 bis 1900 mm. Beide Varietäten sind äußerst unempfindlich gegenüber langen Wintern. Sie übersteht Temperaturen von −39 °C und +38 °C. Unter den Tannenarten gilt die Kolorado-Tanne als die unempfindlichste gegenüber Trockenheit. Sie stellt an den Boden und den pH-Wert nur sehr geringe Ansprüche.

Systematik

Das Artepitheton concolor bedeutet „gleichfarbig“ und weist auf die auf beiden Seiten gleichfarbigen Nadeln hin.

Die Kolorado-Tanne wird in die zwei Varietäten Abies concolor var. concolor, die „Inlandform“ und Abies concolor var. lowiana, die „Sierra-Form“ aufgeteilt. Manche Autoren sehen sie auch als selbstständige Arten an: Abies concolor und Abies lowiana (Gordon) A.Murray bis.[2]

  • Kolorado-Tanne (Abies concolor var. concolor): Sie erreicht durchschnittlich Wuchshöhen von 33 Metern und ist frosthart und langsamwüchsig. Hat bläulich graugrüne scheitelförmig angeordnete Nadeln. Sie kommt von Colorado, Südost-Idaho und Ost-Nevada über Ost-Kalifornien, Arizona und New Mexico bis in den Norden Mexikos vor.
  • Sierra-Tanne (Abies concolor var. lowiana (Gordon) Lemmon; Syn.: Picea lowiana Gordon, Abies lowiana (Gordon) A.Murray bis): Diese raschwüchsige Varietät erreicht Wuchshöhen von über 50 Metern. Die unterseits heller grün gefärbten Nadeln sind horizontal gescheitelt. Sie kommt in den kalifornischen Küstengebirgen, Süd-Oregon und in der Sierra Nevada vor.
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Befall von Arceuthobium campylopodum subsp. abietinum auf Abies concolor

Phytopathologie

Phytopathologisch und forstwirtschaftlich entscheidend bei der Kolorado-Tanne sind vor allem Borkenkäferpopulationen. Im natürlichen Areal wird sie häufig von Tannenkrebs und Zwergmisteln (Arceuthobium) befallen. Weiterhin wird sie stark von Wild verbissen. Die größte Bedeutung von den abiotischen Waldschadensursachen hat Feuer. Mäßig empfindlich ist sie gegenüber Ozon, ganz und gar unempfindlich gegenüber Frost. Sie erträgt Extremtemperaturen von −39 °C.

Nutzung

Auf Grund der eher schlechten Holzqualität besteht nur geringe Nutzholz-Tauglichkeit. Meist wird das Holz zur Herstellung von Kisten oder als Konstruktionselement für kleine Häuser verwendet. Nutzen findet die Tanne als Zellstofflieferant für die Papierproduktion und als Sperrholz.

Die Kolorado-Tanne wird aufgrund ihrer Anspruchslosigkeit als Ziergehölz genutzt.

In Amerika wird sie gerne als Weihnachtsbaum verwendet und deshalb in Plantagen angebaut. Das Harz, welches bei jungen Bäumen aus der Borke austritt, wird zur Herstellung von Kanadabalsam benutzt.

Quellen

  • Christopher J. Earle: Abies concolor. In: The Gymnosperm Database. 22. Mai 2011, abgerufen am 22. Oktober 2011 (englisch).
  • Peter Schütt: Abies concolor. In: Peter Schütt, Horst Weisgerber, Hans J. Schuck, Ulla Lang, Bernd Stimm, Andreas Roloff: Lexikon der Nadelbäume. Verbreitung – Beschreibung – Ökologie – Nutzung; die große Enzyklopädie. Nikol, Hamburg 2004, ISBN 3-933203-80-5, S. 35–44.
  • Jost Fitschen, Franz H. Meyer [Bearb.]: Gehölzflora : ein Buch zum Bestimmem der in Mitteleuropa wildwachsenden und angepflanzten Bäume und Sträucher ; mit Knospen- und Früchteschlüssel. 11., erw. und korr. Auflage. Quelle und Meyer, Wiebelsheim 2002, ISBN 3-494-01268-7.
  • David More, John White, Joachim Mayer [Übers.]: Colorado-Tanne. In: Die Kosmos-Enzyklopädie der Bäume : 2100 Arten und Sorten. Kosmos, Stuttgart 2005, ISBN 3-440-10170-3, S. 143.

Einzelnachweise

  1. Abies concolor (Gordon & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr. bei Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis..
  2. John W. Thieret: Abies lowiana. In:Flora of North America Editorial Committee (Hrsg.): Flora of North America North of Mexico. Volume 2: Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Oxford University Press, New York / Oxford u. a. 1993, ISBN 0-19-508242-7 (englisch).

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Kolorado-Tanne: Brief Summary ( German )

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Die Kolorado-Tanne (Abies concolor), auch Grau-Tanne genannt, ist eine Pflanzenart aus der Gattung der Tannen (Abies) in der Familie der Kieferngewächse (Pinaceae).

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Abies concolor ( Udmurt )

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Abies concolor
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Abies concolor

Abies concolor (лат. Abies concolor) – Pinaceae семьяысь шунды пуксён пал Америкалэн Огазеяськем Штатъёсаз но уйпал — шунды пуксён пал Мексикаын будӥсь ньылпу. Ӝуждалаез ог 25-60 м, модослэн диаметрез 2 м.

Субвидъёс

  • Abies concolor subsp. concolor
  • Abies concolor subsp. lowiana (syn. A. lowiana)
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Abies concolor ( Komi )

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Abies concolor
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Abies concolor

Abies concolor (лат. Abies concolor) – быдмассэзлӧн пожум котырись ньыв увтырын торья вид. Ньывпуыс быдмӧ 25-60 метра вылына да овлӧ 2 метра кыза диаметрын. Ньывпу пантасьӧ рытвыв Америкаись Ӧтлаасьӧм Штаттэзын да ойвыв-рытвыв Мексикаын.

Субвиддэз

  • Abies concolor subsp. concolor
  • Abies concolor subsp. lowiana (syn. A. lowiana)
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Abies concolor: Brief Summary ( Udmurt )

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Abies concolor (лат. Abies concolor) – Pinaceae семьяысь шунды пуксён пал Америкалэн Огазеяськем Штатъёсаз но уйпал — шунды пуксён пал Мексикаын будӥсь ньылпу. Ӝуждалаез ог 25-60 м, модослэн диаметрез 2 м.

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Abies concolor: Brief Summary ( Komi )

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 src= Abies concolor  src= Abies concolor

Abies concolor (лат. Abies concolor) – быдмассэзлӧн пожум котырись ньыв увтырын торья вид. Ньывпуыс быдмӧ 25-60 метра вылына да овлӧ 2 метра кыза диаметрын. Ньывпу пантасьӧ рытвыв Америкаись Ӧтлаасьӧм Штаттэзын да ойвыв-рытвыв Мексикаын.

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Šera jedła ( Lower Sorbian )

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Šera jedła (Abies concolor) jo bom ze swójźby chójcowych rostlinow (Pinaceae).

Wopis

Stojnišćo

Rozšyrjenje

Wužywanje

Nožki

  1. Starosta: Dolnoserbsko-nimski słownik, Niedersorbisch-deutsches Wörterbuch, Bautzen 1999, ISBN 3-7420-1096-4, bok 167
  2. W internetowem słowniku: Tanne

Žrědła

  • Brankačk, Jurij: Wobrazowy słownik hornjoserbskich rostlinskich mjenow na CD ROM. Rěčny centrum WITAJ, wudaće za serbske šule. Budyšin 2005.
  • Kubát, K. (Hlavní editor): Klíč ke květeně České republiky. Academia, Praha (2002)
  • Lajnert, Jan: Rostlinske mjena. Serbske. Němske. Łaćanske. Rjadowane po přirodnym systemje. Volk und Wissen Volkseigener Verlag Berlin (1954)
  • Rězak, Filip: Němsko-serbski wšowědny słownik hornjołužiskeje rěče. Donnerhak, Budyšin (1920)

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Šera jedła: Brief Summary ( Lower Sorbian )

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Šera jedła (Abies concolor) jo bom ze swójźby chójcowych rostlinow (Pinaceae).

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Abies concolor

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Abies concolor, the white fir or Colorado fir, is a coniferous tree in the pine family Pinaceae. This tree is native to the mountains of western North America, including the Cascade Range and southern Rocky Mountains, and into the isolated mountain ranges of southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Mexico. It naturally occurs at elevations between 900 and 3,400 metres (3,000 and 11,200 ft).

It is popular as an ornamental landscaping tree and as a Christmas tree.

Description

This large evergreen conifer grows best in the central Sierra Nevada of California, where the record specimen was recorded as 74.9 metres (246 feet) tall and measured 4.6 m (15 ft) in diameter at breast height (dbh) in Yosemite National Park.[4] The typical size of white fir ranges from 25–60 m (82–197 ft) tall and up to 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) dbh. The largest specimens are found in the central Sierra Nevada, where the largest diameter recorded was found in Sierra National Forest at 58.5 m × 8.5 m (192 ft × 28 ft) (1972);[4] the west slope of the Sierra Nevada is also home to the tallest specimen on record, 78.8 m (259 ft) in height.[5] Abies concolor subsp. concolor (Rocky mountain white fir) rarely exceeds 38 m (125 ft) tall or 0.9 m (3 ft) dbh. Large (but not huge) trees in good soil range from 40 to 60 m (130 to 200 ft) tall and from 99 to 165 centimetres (39 to 65 in) dbh in California and southwestern Oregon and to 41 m (135 ft) tall and 124 cm (49 in) dbh in Arizona and New Mexico.[6] The dead tree tops sometimes fork into new growth.[7]

The gray bark is usually at least 10 cm (4 in) thick, and brown-hued inside.[7] The leaves are needle-like, flattened, 2.5–8 cm (1–3+18 in) long and 2 millimetres (332 in) wide by 0.5–1 mm (164364 in) thick, green to glaucous blue-green above,[7] and with two glaucous blue-white bands of stomatal bloom below, and slightly notched to bluntly pointed at the tip. The leaf arrangement is spiral on the shoot, but with each leaf variably twisted at the base so they all lie in either two more-or-less flat ranks on either side of the shoot, or upswept across the top of the shoot but not below the shoot.

The cones are 6–12 cm (2+144+34 in) long and 4–4.5 cm (1+581+34 in) broad, green or purple ripening pale brown, with about 100–150 scales; the scale bracts are short, and hidden in the closed cone. The winged seeds are released when the cones disintegrate at maturity about 6 months after pollination.[8]

White fir can live over 300 years.[9]

Subspecies

As treated here, there are two subspecies; these are also variously treated at either the lower rank of variety by some authors, or as distinct species by others:

Botanical collection

White fir was first collected by Augustus Fendler on his expedition to the Santa Fe area of New Mexico in 1846–1847. Fender's patron George Engelmann, a St. Louis area physician and botanist, then described the plant.[12] This tree was first collected in California by William Lobb on his expedition to California of 1849–1853, after it was overlooked by David Douglas in his 1825–27 expedition to the Pacific coast region.[13][14]

The specific epithet concolor means "all one color".[15]

Distribution

This tree is native to the mountains of western North America from the southern Cascade Range in Oregon, south throughout California and into the Sierra de San Pedro Mártir in northern Baja California, and south throughout the Colorado Plateau and southern Rocky Mountains in Utah and Colorado, and into the isolated mountain ranges of southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Mexico. It naturally occurs between 900 and 3,400 m (3,000 and 11,200 ft) above sea level.[9]

Ecology

White fir is very closely related to grand fir (Abies grandis), with subspecies lowiana being particularly similar to the interior variety of grand fir, A. grandis var. idahoensis, intergrading with it where they meet in the Cascades of Central Oregon. White fir occupies a broader range, including dryer and colder sites, being more drought tolerant and having thicker, fire-resistant bark.[7] In Mexico, it is replaced by further close relatives, Durango fir (A. durangensis) and Mexican fir (A. mexicana).

Like grand fir, white fir is more shade tolerant than Douglas fir, but less so than western hemlock and western redcedar.[7] White fir is a climax species, which means the forest has reached complex maturity in forest succession in western coniferous forests of the U.S. White fir and yellow pine (ponderosa pine/Jeffrey pine) have co-existed for millennia in old growth forests throughout their range. In the presence of logging of large diameter trees and exclusion of cleansing wildfires, young trees have become abundant over the past two centuries.[16] White fir had been regarded as a pest in the past by those in the lumber industry, but this opinion has changed. White fir is now one of the most important of all commercial softwoods according to the Western Wood Products Association.[17]

The white fir trait of retaining lower limbs creates an escape route for medium-to-small forest birds (such as spotted owl) from larger flying predators and provides a drip zone around the roots for collecting moisture. The retained limbs can become a fuel ladder that allows flames to climb up to the canopy.[7] Limbing-up white fir, instead of removing medium to large diameter trees, in areas where the public is more likely to start fires can help keep other trees and specifically giant sequoia from experiencing canopy fire. Recent concern for sequoia groves has caused agencies to call for removal of white fir in the Sierra Nevada. While sequoia seedlings and young saplings are highly susceptible to mortality or serious injury by fire; mature sequoias are fire adapted with: fire-resistant bark, elevated canopies, self-pruning lower branches, latent buds, and serotinous cones. The sequoia ecosystem is incomplete without the mixed pine/fir and oak that make up the mid and understory.[18] Giant Sequoia's cones release seeds when the heat of fire triggers them to open while the thick bark protects the inner cambium from fire damage.[19]

This tree is host to fir mistletoe (Phoradendron pauciflorum), a parasitic plant. It is attacked by many types of insects, such as the fir engraver (Scolytus ventralis).[20]

Dependent species

Mature white fir–yellow pine forests support old-growth dependent wildlife species such as California spotted owl (Strix occidentalis occidentalis), Mount Pinos sooty grouse (Dendragapus fuliginosus howardi), and Pacific fisher (Pekania pennanti). The spotted owl and fisher utilize cavities in decadent large-diameter white fir for nesting and denning.[21] The Mount Pinos sooty grouse requires large diameter trees for thermal cover and its winter diet consists of mostly white fir and yellow pine needles. This subspecies of sooty grouse has been extirpated along with a significant number of large diameter white fir from much of its range. Other subspecies of sooty grouse also utilize Douglas fir, which does not occur in the range of Mount Pinos sooty grouse.[22] Squirrel also frequent the tree's branches.[23]

Deer browse the foliage of this species and porcupines chew the bark. Songbirds, grouse, and various mammals eat the seeds.[23][24]

Uses

White fir and grand fir were used by Native Americans for medicinal use involving powdered bark or pitch to treat tuberculosis or skin ailments. The Nlaka'pamux used the bark to cover lodges and make canoes. Branches were also used as bedding.[7]

White fir is a preferred construction species because of its nail-holding ability, lightness in weight, and resistance to split, twist, and pitch. It is straight-grained, non-resinous, fine-textured, stiff, and strong.[25]

It is popular as a Christmas tree and for Christmas decoration owing to its soft needles, generally excellent needle retention and abundance. It is often marketed as concolor or white fir.[26]

Cultivation

White fir is widely planted as an ornamental tree in parks and larger gardens, particularly some cultivars of subsp. concolor selected for very bright glaucous blue foliage, such as cv. 'Violacea'. The dwarf cultivar 'Compacta', growing to a maximum height and spread of 2.5 m (8.2 ft), has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[27][28]

Gallery

References

  1. ^ Farjon, A. (2013). "Abies concolor". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2013: e.T42276A2969061. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42276A2969061.en. Retrieved November 19, 2021.
  2. ^ "Abies concolor". Tropicos. Missouri Botanical Garden.
  3. ^ "Abies concolor". World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew – via The Plant List. Note that this website has been superseded by World Flora Online
  4. ^ a b American Forestry Association. 1978. National register of big trees. American Forests 84(4):19-47
  5. ^ Taylor, M. "New World Record for White Fir". Native Tree Society.
  6. ^ Jones, John R. 1974. Silviculture of southwestern mixed conifers and aspen: the status of our knowledge. USDA Forest Service, Research Paper RM-122. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. 44 p.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Arno, Stephen F.; Hammerly, Ramona P. (2020) [1977]. Northwest Trees: Identifying & Understanding the Region's Native Trees (field guide ed.). Seattle: Mountaineers Books. pp. 128–135. ISBN 978-1-68051-329-5. OCLC 1141235469.
  8. ^ Hunt, Richard S. (1993). "Abies concolor". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  9. ^ a b "Plant Fact Sheet: White Fir - Abies concolor" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 21, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
  10. ^ USDA, NRCS (n.d.). "Abies lowiana". The PLANTS Database (plants.usda.gov). Greensboro, North Carolina: National Plant Data Team. Retrieved December 14, 2017.
  11. ^ Hunt, Richard S. (1993). "Abies lowiana". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 2. New York and Oxford – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  12. ^ Fendler, Augustus (March 2, 1846). "Correspondence : Fendler (Augustus) and Engelmann (George)". Biodiversity Heritage Library. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
  13. ^ Nisbet, Jack (2012). David Douglas, a Naturalist at Work: An Illustrated Exploration Across Two Centuries in the Pacific Northwest. Sasquatch Books. p. 208. ISBN 9781570618307.
  14. ^ Gordon, George, & Glendinning, Robert. Pinetum 155. 1858.
  15. ^ Harrison, Lorraine (2012). RHS Latin for Gardeners. United Kingdom: Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 978-1845337315.
  16. ^ "Benefits of Fire" (PDF). California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 9, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2022.
  17. ^ "White Fir" (PDF). Sierra Pacific Industries. Retrieved January 26, 2022.
  18. ^ "Sequoiadendron giganteum". www.fs.fed.us.
  19. ^ The Giant Sequoia of the Sierra Nevada
  20. ^ Maloney P. E. & D. M. Rizzo. (2002). Pathogens and insects in a pristine forest ecosystem: the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja, Mexico. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 32:3 448-57.
  21. ^ Sweitzer, Rick A.; Popescu, Viorel D.; Barrett, Reginald H.; Purcell, Kathryn L.; Thompson, Craig M. (2015). "Reproduction, abundance, and population growth for a fisher (Pekania pennanti) population in the Sierra National Forest, California". Journal of Mammalogy. 96 (4): 772–790. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyv083.
  22. ^ Bland, James D. (2008). "Mount Pinos Sooty Grouse". Studies of Western Birds: 102–06. Retrieved January 26, 2022.
  23. ^ a b Peattie, Donald Culross (1953). A Natural History of Western Trees. New York: Bonanza Books. p. 196.
  24. ^ Whitney, Stephen (1985). Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides). New York: Knopf. p. 360. ISBN 0-394-73127-1.
  25. ^ Western Wood Products Association (WWPA)
  26. ^ "Christmas Tree Types". Archived from the original on January 16, 2009. Retrieved March 2, 2022.
  27. ^ "Abies concolor 'Compacta'". RHS. Retrieved August 14, 2019.
  28. ^ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 1. Retrieved August 14, 2019.
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Abies concolor: Brief Summary

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Abies concolor, the white fir or Colorado fir, is a coniferous tree in the pine family Pinaceae. This tree is native to the mountains of western North America, including the Cascade Range and southern Rocky Mountains, and into the isolated mountain ranges of southern Arizona, New Mexico, and Northern Mexico. It naturally occurs at elevations between 900 and 3,400 metres (3,000 and 11,200 ft).

It is popular as an ornamental landscaping tree and as a Christmas tree.

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Abies concolor ( Spanish; Castilian )

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 src=
Follaje y conos de la subesp. concolor.

Abies concolor o abeto del Colorado es una especie arbórea de la familia de las pináceas, originaria de las montañas occidentales de Norteamérica, a altitudes de 900 a 3.400 msnm.

Descripción

Es una conífera de medio a grande siempreverde que alcanza de 25 a 60 m de altura y con más de 2 m de diámetro de tronco.
Las hojas son tipo aguja, chatas, de 2,5 a 6 cm de long. y 2 mm de ancho por 0,5 a 1 mm de espesor, verdes a azul verdoso glaucas arriba, y con dos bandas glaucas azul-blancas de estomas debajo, punta no aguzada. El arreglo foliar es en espiral en los ápices, pero cada hoja es variablemente retorcida en la base, pareciendo que hubiera dos o más líneas. Los cono o estróbilos tienen 6 a 12 cm de long. y 4 a 4,5 cm de ancho, verdes o púrpuras y al madurar pardo pálido, con cerca de 100 a 150 escamas; las brácteas son cortas. Las semillas, aladas, son dispersadas cuando los estróbilos se desintegran a la maturez, cerca de 6 meses después de polinizados.

Subespecies

Hay dos subespecies; a veces son tratadas como variedad por algunos autores, o como distintas especies por otros:

  • Abies concolor subesp. concolor. Abeto de Low,[2]abeto del Colorado blanco o abeto de las Montañas Rocallosas blanco. En Estados Unidos, a altitudes de 1.700 a 3.400 msnm en las Montañas Rocallosas del sur de Idaho a Utah y Colorado, Nuevo México, Arizona, y las montañas de Nevada y el extremo sudeste de California, y una corta porción del norte de Sonora, México. Es un árbol más pequeño, de 25 a 35 m de altura, raramente 45 m. Follaje fuertemente curvado hacia arriba a erecto, salvo las ramas en sombras en la corona inferior; hojas mayormente de 3,5 a 6 cm, fuertemente glaucas en el haz, con numerosos estomas. Tolera inviernos con temperaturas bajo de -40 °C.
  • Abies concolor subesp. lowiana. abeto del colorado bajo o Sierra abeto de Nevada blanco. En EE. UU., a altitudes de 900 a 2700 msnm de Cascades en el Oregón central, sur de California (Montañas Klamath, Sierra Nevada) al norte de Baja California, México. Es un árbol alto de hasta 40 a 60 m. El follaje es achatado en la parte baja; hojas hacia arriba en los ápices de crecimiento, poco incurvadas; hojas de 2,5 a 5 cm, poco glaucas en el lado superior, con pocos o ningún estoma. Tolera inviernos con temperaturas hasta -30 °C.
 src=
Follaje superior de A. concolor subesp. lowiana
 src=
Follaje interior de A. concolor subesp. lowiana

La especie está fuertemente vinculada con Abies grandis, siendo la subespecie lowiana particularmente similar a la variedad Abies grandis var. idahoensis, intergraduada con ella en las Cascadas de Oregon central. En el sur de México, está reemplazada por otros parientes: Abies durangensis (abeto del Durango) y Abies mexicana (abeto de México).

Usos

Es muy plantada con fines ornamentales en parques, particularmente algunos cultivares de la subesp. concolor seleccionados por su follaje intensamente azul glauco, como el cv. 'Violacea'. Algunos consideran que el follaje tiene un atractivo aroma, y por eso se usa mucho en decoración de Navidad, incluyendo como árbol de Navidad. La madera del abeto es blanda, y no resiste muy bien a los parásitos; se la usa en pequeñas cantidades en pasta para papel, empaques sin retorno, y algunos trabajos de construcción baratos.

Taxonomía

Abies concolor fue descrita por (Gordon) Lindley ex Hildebr. y publicado en Verhandlungen des Naturhistorischen Vereines der Preussischen Rheinlande und Westphalens 18: 261. 1861.[3]

Etimología

Abies: nombre genérico que viene del nombre latino de Abies alba.[4]

concolor: epíteto latino que significa "con igual color".[5]

Sinonimia
  • Abies grandis var. concolor (Gordon) A.Murray bis
  • Abies grandis var. lowiana (Gordon) Hoopes
  • Abies lasiocarpa var. pendula Carrière
  • Abies lowiana (Gordon) A.Murray bis
  • Abies lowiana var. pendula (Carrière) Fitschen
  • Abies lowiana var. viridula Debreczy & I. Rácz
  • Picea concolor Gordonbasónimo
  • Picea grandis Newb.
  • Picea lowiana Gordon
  • Picea lowii Gordon
  • Picea parsonsiana Barron
  • Picea parsonsii Fowler
  • Pinus concolor (Gordon) Parl.
  • Pinus lowiana (Gordon) W.R.McNab[6][7]

Referencias

  1. IUCN: 2006. Asesores: Grupo de Especialistas en Coníferas. 1998; id: 42276. Abies concolor; bajado: 12 de mayo de 2006
  2. Nombre vulgar preferido en castellano, en Árboles: guía de campo; Johnson, Owen y More, David; traductor: Pijoan Rotger, Manuel, ed. Omega, 2006. ISBN 978-84-282-1400-1. Versión en español de la Collins Tree Guide.
  3. «Abies concolor». Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. Consultado el 21 de enero de 2013.
  4. En Nombres Botánicos
  5. En Epítetos Botánicos
  6. Abies concolor en PlantList
  7. «Abies concolor». World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.

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Abies concolor: Brief Summary ( Spanish; Castilian )

provided by wikipedia ES
 src= Follaje y conos de la subesp. concolor.

Abies concolor o abeto del Colorado es una especie arbórea de la familia de las pináceas, originaria de las montañas occidentales de Norteamérica, a altitudes de 900 a 3.400 msnm.

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Hall nulg ( Estonian )

provided by wikipedia ET

Hall nulg (Abies concolor) on igihaljas okaspuu nulu perekonnast.

Halli nulu avastas 1831. aastal Columbia jõe lähedalt šoti botaanik David Douglas (1799–1834).[3] Teaduslikus kirjanduses kirjeldas aga halli nulgu esimesena 1858. aastal inglise botaanik George Gordon (1801–1893), kes kasutas ladinakeelset nimetust Picea concolor.[1]

Botaanilised tunnused

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Okkad ja käbid
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Isasõisikud okaste vahel

Hall nulg kasvab looduslikus levikualas tavaliselt 25–40 m kõrguseks, tüve läbimõõt on 0,9–1,2 (1,8) m.[4] Registreeritud suurima puu kõrgus on 66,1 m ja tüve läbimõõt 2,23 m.[5] Puude eluiga võib soodsates oludes küündida 300–400 aastani.[6]

Võra on tihe, kuhikjas, võrdlemisi lai ning ulatub maapinnani. Tüve koor on tuhkjashall, paks ja pikuti lõhenev.[4]

Juurestik on hästi arenenud, peajuurel on rohkesti külgjuuri, mis ulatuvad sügavale, mistõttu on ta küllaltki tormikindel.[4]

Okkad on pikemad kui teistel nululiikidel, 4–8 cm pikkused, tömbid, mõlemalt küljelt sinakasrohelised või vesihallid, mõlemal küljel on õhulõheribad. Pungad on kerajad, kollakasrohelised-roosakad, vaigused. Noored võrsed on kollakasrohelised, paljad või nõrgalt karvased.[4]

Isasõisikud on purpurpunased või -rohelised. Käbid on silinderjad, ümardunud otstega, 7–12 (14) cm pikkused ja läbimõõduga 3–5 cm, noorelt oliivrohelised, valminult pruunikad. Seemnesoomused on väga laiad, ümardunud servaga ning kattesoomustest märksa pikemad.[4]

Seemned on 8–12 mm pikkused, tuhmpruunid, tiivakesega, mis on seemnest ligi kaks korda pikem. 1000 seemne mass on vahemikus 20–40 g.[4] Tõusmetel on 5–9 idulehte.[5]

Levikuala ja ökoloogia

Halli nulu areaal paikneb Põhja-Ameerika lääneosas, põhja-lõuna suunas USA Oregoni osariigi keskosast Põhja-Mehhikoni ning ida-lääne suunas Colorado osariigi keskosast Vaikse ookeani rannikuni. Ta kasvab mägedes 600–3400 m kõrgusel.[7]

Kliima

Küllalt suure ja väljavenitatud levikuala tõttu varieeruvad kliimatingimused üsna suures ulatuses. Kliimat iseloomustavad keskmine õhuniiskus ja keskmise kuni suure lumikatte paksusega pikad talved. Ta kasvab nii niisketel ja jahedatel kui ka soojematel ja kuivadel mäenõlvadel. Aasta keskmine sademete hulk on vahemikus 510–1900 mm. Madalamatel kõrgustel esineb enamik sademetest sügisel ja varakevadel. Suurematel kõrgustel on peamiseks niiskuse allikaks lumesulavesi.[7]

Kasvupinnas

Suure levikuala tõttu on halli nulu kasvupinnas moodustunud paljudest erinevatest lähtekivimitest. Esindatud on nii tard-, sette- kui ka moondekivimid. Kõige paremini kasvab hall nulg keskmise sügavusega ja hästi vett läbilaskvatel liiv- ja saviliivmuldadel, sõltumata mulla lähtekivimist. Ta talub nii happelist kui ka aluselist kasvupinnast.[7]

Halli nulu metsad

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Hallid nulud California osariigis

Kaskaadide ja Sierra Nevada mäestiku okaspuu segametsades esineb hall nulg peamiselt koos järgmiste puuliikidega: hiigelnulg (Abies grandis), Menziesi maasikapuu (Arbutus menziesii), kiviviljak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), kalifornia lõhnaseeder (Libocedrus decurrens), kollane mänd (Pinus ponderosa), keerdmänd (Pinus contorta), suhkrumänd (Pinus lambertiana), Jeffrey mänd (Pinus jeffreyi), harilik ebatsuuga (Pseudotsuga menziesii) ja kalifornia tamm (Quercus kelloggii). Sierra Nevada keskosas kasvab ta koos vähelevinud mammutipuuga (Sequoiadendron giganteum). Oma levikualas on hall nulg tihti domineeriv puuliik, vaid areaali põhjaosa niisketel mäenõlvadel suudavad temaga edukalt konkureerida läänetsuuga (Tsuga heterophylla) ja hiigel-elupuu (Thuja plicata). Keskmistel kõrgustel on hall nulg okaspuu segametsades domineeriv, moodustades ajuti ka puhaspuistuid. Kõrgemal jagab temaga metsa tore nulg (Abies magnifica).[6]

Areaali kaguosas (Kaljumäestikus) kasvab ta koos järgmiste puuliikidega: harilik ebatsuuga, Engelmanni kuusk (Picea engelmannii), torkav kuusk (Picea pungens), mäginulg (Abies lasiocarpa), kollane mänd ja valkjas mänd (Pinus strobiformis).[6]

California loodeosas ja Oregoni edelaosas hübridiseerub hall nulg looduslikult geneetiliselt lähedase hiigelnuluga.[8]

Hall nulg toiduallikana looduses

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Ruskselg-tihane elutseb halli nulu metsades

Halli nulu metsad pakuvad varju ja toitu paljudele suurematele ja väiksematele loomadele. Must- ja valgesaba-hirved, põdrad ja baribalid toituvad periooditi halli nulu metsades. Hirved toituvad halli nulu võrsetest aastaringselt, eriti meeldivad neile kevadised noored mahlased võrsed. Urson toitub täiskasvanud halli nulu floeemist. Nulupüüd (Dendragapus obscurus) toituvad aga halli nulu okastest. Halli nulu seemned on toiduks paljudele lindudele ja närilistele, kelle hulka kuuluvad: kuuse-käbilind (Loxia curvirostra), hallmänsak (Nucifraga columbiana), ruskselg-tihane (Poecile rufescens), mägitihane (Poecile gambeli), lendoravad, vöötoravad ja hiired. Douglase oravad (Tamiasciurus douglasii) ja ameerika punaoravad (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) koguvad suurel hulgal halli nulu käbisid vahetult enne nende valmimist, augustist septembrini.[6]

Paljunemine

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Seemnete eraldumine

Hall nulg on ühekojaline okaspuu ning paljuneb seemnete abil. Käbikandvus algab alles 40-aastastel puudel. Tolmlemine toimub mai keskelt kuni juulini, mis sõltub kasvukohast ja ilmastikutingimustest. Seemned valmivad septembris, kolm nädalat enne nende varisemist. Seemnete peamiseks levitajaks on tuul. Suuremate ja raskemate seemnete tõttu kannab tuul neid lähemale kui teistel nululiikidel. Allatuul viib nad üldjuhul kaugusele, mis on 1,5–2 korda suurem kui puu kõrgus. Väiksem kogus seemneid võib tugevamate tuulte abil ka oluliselt kaugemale lennata. Seemned säilivad talvel lume all või sees ja idanevad kevadel kohe pärast lume sulamist. Kuigi seemnete idanevus pole kuigi kõrge, 20–50%, kompenseerib selle suur hulk. Üks käbi sisaldab 185–295 seemet. Halli nulu metsas valmib ühel hektaril rohkem kui 1,5 miljonit seemet. Head seemneaastad korduvad kahe kuni viie aasta järel. Seemikud kasvavad kõige paremini poolvarjus, sest täisvalguse käes kipuvad nad hukkuma põua ja ülekuumenemise tõttu. Nad taluvad ka täisvarju, kuid sel juhul jääb kasv väga madalaks, 50-aastane puu jääb siis vaid 0,9 m kõrguseks. Valgusolude paranemisel suureneb kasvukiirus oluliselt.[6]

Haigused ja kahjurid

 src=
Parasiittaim Arceuthobium abietinum

Parasiittaimed

Kaks parasiittaimede liiki Phoradendron bolleanum ssp. pauciflorum ja Arceuthobium abietinum f. sp. concoloris võivad piirkonniti põhjustada tõsiseid kahjustusi halli nulu metsades. Nakatunud puud jäävad kiratsema ja murduvad tihti haigestunud tüve kohalt. Nõrgaks jäänud puid ründavad sageli üraskid ja nad on vastuvõtlikud mitmesugustele seenhaigustele.[6]

Seenhaigused

Halli nulgu võivad tõsiselt kahjustada järgmised seenhaigused: juurepess (Heterobasidion annosum), külmaseened (Armillaria spp.), Pholiota limonella, Echinodontium tinctorium. Seenhaigustesse nakatumine toimub tihti koorevigastuste kaudu, mida on põhjustanud metsapõlengud, kahjurputukad, tugev pakane või mehaanilised vigastused (inimeste põhjustatud või läheduses langenud puu).[6]

Kahjurputukad

Kahjurputukatest laastab kõige enam halli nulu puistuid kooreürask Scolytus ventralis. See üraskiliik on levinud kogu halli nulu areaalis ning võib rünnata puid peaaegu kõikjal. Ainuüksi Californias on aastane juurdekasvu kadu puude hukkumise tõttu ligi 2,4 miljonit m3. Epideemiliste puhangute ajal on kahjud veelgi suuremad. Scolytus ventralis võib rünnata kõiki puid, kuid eriti vastuvõtlikud on mitmesugustesse haigustesse nakatunud ning vigastatud koorega puud. Harvem võivad puid kahjustada ka teised üraskiliigid (üks Pseudohylesinus liik, kaks Scolytus liiki, Tetropium abietis ja Melanophila drummondi), kuid ulatuslikku kahju põhjustab ainult Scolytus ventralis.[7]

Kasutamine

Puidu tähtsamad füüsikalis-mehaanilised omadused[9][10] Omadus Väärtus Ühik Tihedus, õhukuiv puit* 437 kg/m3 Erikaal, õhukuiv puit* 0,39 - Kõvadus ristikiudu, õhukuiv puit* 2100 N Elastsusmoodul, värske puit / õhukuiv puit* 8000 / 10300 MPa Paindetugevus, värske puit / õhukuiv puit* 41,0 / 68,0 MPa Survetugevus, (õhukuiv puit*) pikikiudu / ristikiudu 40,0 / 3,7 MPa Nihketugevus, õhukuiv puit* 7,6 MPa Ruumala kahanemine kuivamisel, ahjukuiv puit** 9,8 % õhukuiv puit* – niiskusesisaldus 12%; ahjukuiv puit** – niiskusesisaldus 0%.

Halli nulu puit on kerge, pehme ja kergesti töödeldav. Puitu kasutatakse peamiselt saematerjali tootmiseks, vineeritööstuses, vähemal määral ka tselluloosi valmistamisel.[6]

USA kaguosas on hall nulg ka üsna populaarne jõulupuu. Dekoratiivset ja küllaltki külmakindlat puud kasvatatakse parkides ja aedades ilupuuna ning kasutatakse sagedasti maastike haljastamisel USA põhjaosa linnades ja maapiirkondades. Siiski ei talu ta väga saastunud õhku.[6]

 src=
Tüve läbilõige
 src=
Noor puu kultiveerituna
 src=
Vanemad puud kultiveerituna

Kasvatamine Eestis

Hall nulg toodi Euroopasse 1851. aastal ja on osutunud meil üheks külmakindlamaks ja vähenõudlikumaks nululiigiks nii mullastiku kui ka kliima suhtes. Külmakraade talub –29...–34 °C,[11] mistõttu on tõsisemaid külmakahjustusi esinenud 1939–1940. ja 1978–1979. aasta karmidel talvedel.[4]

Eestis kasvavatest nulgudest talub hall nulg linnatingimusi kõige paremini, kuid samas on ta ka üks valgusnõudlikumaid, kuna varjus kasvades jääb võra hõredaks. Kõige paremini kasvab meil parasniisketel viljakatel muldadel, kuigi lepib ka väheviljakate liivmuldadega. Vanemates parkides on ta siberi nulu ja palsamnulu järel kolmas levinuim nululiik. Suuri puid võib meil leida Tallinnas, Nõmmel ja Mähel, Viljandimaal Polli pargis, Salla pargis Lääne-Virumaal ja Heimtali pargis Viljandimaal, kus kasvavad Eesti kõrgeimad (27 m) hallid nulud.

Puudusteks on väga aeglane kasv noores eas ja viimastel aastatel eriti intensiivselt esinevad musta pahktäi (Aphrastasia pectinatae) kahjustused.[12]

Viited

  1. 1,0 1,1 "Conifer database: "Abies concolor".". Catalogue of Life: 2010 Annual Checklist. Vaadatud 03.04.2010. Inglise.
  2. Conifer Specialist Group (1998). Abies concolor. IUCNi punase nimistu ohustatud liigid. IUCN 2010.
  3. "Hem-Fir". www2.wwpa.org. Vaadatud 05.07.2010. Inglise.
  4. 4,0 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6 Endel Laas. "Dendroloogia", Tallinn: Valgus, 1987.
  5. 5,0 5,1 "Abies concolor". www.conifers.org. Vaadatud 03.04.2010. Inglise.
  6. 6,0 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6 6,7 6,8 "Abies concolor". www.fs.fed.us. Vaadatud 03.04.2010. Inglise.
  7. 7,0 7,1 7,2 7,3 "White Fir". www.na.fs.fed.us. Vaadatud 03.04.2010. Inglise.
  8. James E. Eckenwalder. "Conifers of the World: The Complete Reference", Timber Press, 2009. ISBN 9780881929744; ISBN 0881929743.
  9. Samuel V. Glass, Samuel L. Zelinka. "Wood Handbook, Chapter 04: Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood". www.fpl.fs.fed.us, 2010. Forest Products Laboratory. Failitüüp: PDF. Vaadatud 26.06.2010. Inglise.
  10. David E. Kretschmann. "Wood Handbook, Chapter 05: Mechanical Properties of Wood". www.fpl.fs.fed.us, 2010. Forest Products Laboratory. Failitüüp: PDF. Vaadatud 26.06.2010. Inglise.
  11. Francine J. Bigras ja Stephen J. Colombo. "Conifer Cold Hardiness", Holland: Kluwer Academic Pulishers, 2001. ISBN 0-7923-6636-0.
  12. "Dendroloogilised uurimused Eestis IV", Tartu: Vali Press OÜ, 2008.

Välislingid

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Hall nulg: Brief Summary ( Estonian )

provided by wikipedia ET

Hall nulg (Abies concolor) on igihaljas okaspuu nulu perekonnast.

Halli nulu avastas 1831. aastal Columbia jõe lähedalt šoti botaanik David Douglas (1799–1834). Teaduslikus kirjanduses kirjeldas aga halli nulgu esimesena 1858. aastal inglise botaanik George Gordon (1801–1893), kes kasutas ladinakeelset nimetust Picea concolor.

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Konkolor izei ( Basque )

provided by wikipedia EU

Baltsamo-izeia (Abies concolor) Pinaceae familiaren espezie baten izen arrunta da.[1]

Izei honek bi azpiespezie ditu:

  • Abies concolor subsp. concolor.
  • Abies concolor subsp. lowiana (sin. A. lowiana).

Erreferentziak


Biologia Artikulu hau biologiari buruzko zirriborroa da. Wikipedia lagun dezakezu edukia osatuz.
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Konkolor izei: Brief Summary ( Basque )

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Baltsamo-izeia (Abies concolor) Pinaceae familiaren espezie baten izen arrunta da.

Izei honek bi azpiespezie ditu:

Abies concolor subsp. concolor. Abies concolor subsp. lowiana (sin. A. lowiana).
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Harmaapihta ( Finnish )

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Harmaapihta (Abies concolor) on pihtojen (Abies) sukuun kuuluva havupuu. Laji on peräisin Yhdysvaltojen länsirannikolta.

Harmaapihta on komea puu, joka voi kasvaa 60 metrin korkuiseksi ja runko 160 cm:n paksuiseksi. Latvus kasvaa kartiomaisesti. Rungon kuori on nuorena sileähkö, mutta tulee vanhana syväuurteiseksi. Lehdet ovat eri suuntiin siirottavia, 4–6 cm pitkiä ja 2–3 mm leveitä ja hieman ylöspäin kaartuvia. Väriltään ne ovat sinivihreitä–siniharmaita. Käpy on tavallisesti perätön ja pyöreäkärkinen ja noin 7–8 cm:n pituinen.

Harmaapihta on koristekasvikäytössä yksittäispuuna kaunein. Se viihtyy runsasravinteisessa maassa ja tarvitsee valoisan paikan. Suomessa se kasvaa 10–20 metriä korkeaksi ja menestyy parhaiten vyöhykkeillä I-III.

 src=
Käpyjä

Lähteet

  • Leena Hämet-Ahti, Annikki Palmén, Pentti Alanko ja Peter M. A. Tigerstedt: Suomen puu- ja pensaskasvio. Dendrologian seura 1992.
  • Gunnel Nyblom-Holmberg & Hannele Vainio: Otavan Puutarhakirja. Helsingissä Kustannusosakeyhtiö Otava, 1983/1992. ISBN 951-1-11595-2.
  • L. Hämet-Ahti, A. Palmén, P. Alanko, P.M.A. Tigerstedt, M. Koistinen: Suomen puu- ja pensaskasvio. Helsinki: Dendrologian Seura, 1992. ISBN 951-96557-0-0.
  • The Gymnosperm Database conifers.org. Viitattu 11.9.2009. (englanniksi)

Aiheesta muualla

Abies concolor 20060624.jpg
Tämä kasveihin liittyvä artikkeli on tynkä. Voit auttaa Wikipediaa laajentamalla artikkelia.
  1. Farjon, A.: Abies concolor IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2016.2. 2014. International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN, Iucnredlist.org. Viitattu 7.11.2016. (englanniksi)
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Harmaapihta: Brief Summary ( Finnish )

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Harmaapihta (Abies concolor) on pihtojen (Abies) sukuun kuuluva havupuu. Laji on peräisin Yhdysvaltojen länsirannikolta.

Harmaapihta on komea puu, joka voi kasvaa 60 metrin korkuiseksi ja runko 160 cm:n paksuiseksi. Latvus kasvaa kartiomaisesti. Rungon kuori on nuorena sileähkö, mutta tulee vanhana syväuurteiseksi. Lehdet ovat eri suuntiin siirottavia, 4–6 cm pitkiä ja 2–3 mm leveitä ja hieman ylöspäin kaartuvia. Väriltään ne ovat sinivihreitä–siniharmaita. Käpy on tavallisesti perätön ja pyöreäkärkinen ja noin 7–8 cm:n pituinen.

Harmaapihta on koristekasvikäytössä yksittäispuuna kaunein. Se viihtyy runsasravinteisessa maassa ja tarvitsee valoisan paikan. Suomessa se kasvaa 10–20 metriä korkeaksi ja menestyy parhaiten vyöhykkeillä I-III.

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Sapin du Colorado ( French )

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Abies concolor

Le Sapin du Colorado (Abies concolor), est une plante de la famille des Pinaceae qui pousse entre 1000 et 3000 mètres d'altitude, notamment dans les Montagnes Rocheuses d'où il est originaire[1].

Description

Cet arbre en forme de cône atteint une taille comprise entre 30 et 40 mètres[1]. Son branchage est bien fourni jusqu'à environ 40 ans et ensuite il se rarifie. Le sapin a des bourgeons jaunâtres fortement résinifères. Les aiguilles mesurent de 4 à 7 cm et sont de couleur vert-gris sur les deux faces[1].

Répartition et habitat

 src=
Aire de répartition naturelle du Sapin du Colorado

Le sapin a été introduit en Europe en 1872[1]. Il pousse à l'état natif depuis l'Arizona jusqu'à l'Utah en passant par le plateau du Colorado[1]. Il apprécie une situation abritée et moyennement ensoleillée. On le cultive surtout dans les parcs à titre ornemental mais il est également planté pour son bois dans les régions sèches[1].

Notes et références

  1. a b c d e et f (fr) Arbres - Jaromir Pokorny - p.30 - (ISBN 2-7000-1818-4) - Éditions Gründ - 1987
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Sapin du Colorado: Brief Summary ( French )

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Abies concolor

Le Sapin du Colorado (Abies concolor), est une plante de la famille des Pinaceae qui pousse entre 1000 et 3000 mètres d'altitude, notamment dans les Montagnes Rocheuses d'où il est originaire.

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Šěra jědla ( Upper Sorbian )

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Šěra jědla (Abies concolor) je štom ze swójby chójnowych rostlinow (Pinaceae).

Wopis

Stejnišćo

Rozšěrjenje

Wužiwanje

Nóžki

  1. Pawoł Völkel: Prawopisny słownik hornjoserbskeje rěče. Hornjoserbsko-němski słownik. Ludowe nakładnistwo Domowina, Budyšin 2005, ISBN 3-7420-1920-1, str. 179.
  2. W internetowym słowniku: Tanne

Žórła

  • Brankačk, Jurij: Wobrazowy słownik hornjoserbskich rostlinskich mjenow na CD ROM. Rěčny centrum WITAJ, wudaće za serbske šule. Budyšin 2005.
  • Kubát, K. (Hlavní editor): Klíč ke květeně České republiky. Academia, Praha (2002)
  • Lajnert, Jan: Rostlinske mjena. Serbske. Němske. Łaćanske. Rjadowane po přirodnym systemje. Volk und Wissen Volkseigener Verlag Berlin (1954)
  • Rězak, Filip: Němsko-serbski wšowědny słownik hornjołužiskeje rěče. Donnerhak, Budyšin (1920)

Eksterne wotkazy

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Šěra jědla: Brief Summary ( Upper Sorbian )

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Šěra jědla (Abies concolor) je štom ze swójby chójnowych rostlinow (Pinaceae).

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Hvítþinur ( Icelandic )

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Hvítþinur (fræðiheiti Abies concolor) er sígrænt barrtré af þallarætt sem er ættað frá vesturhluta Norður-Ameríku þar sem það vex í 900 - 3.400 metra hæð. Tréð verður 25 – 60 metra hátt með stofn að ummáli allt að tveim metrum. Það er vinsælt sem garðtré og jólatré. Barrnálarnar eru sérstaklega langar.

Hvítþinur finnst t.d. í trjásöfnum og þjóðskógum Skógræktarinnar á Íslandi. Fullorðin tré eru í Grasagarði Reykjavíkur, Skorradal og í Hallormsstaðaskógi

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Abies concolor ( Italian )

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L'abete del Colorado (Abies concolor) è una pianta della famiglia delle Pinaceae che cresce sulle zone montane dell'ovest degli Stati Uniti d'America, ad un'altitudine compresa tra 600 e 3.400 m.[1]

Etimologia

Il nome generico Abies, utilizzato già dai latini, potrebbe, secondo un'interpretazione etimologica, derivare dalla parola greca ἄβιος = longevo.[2] Il nome specifico concolor fa riferimento all'uniformità di colorazione in entrambi i lati delle foglie aghiformi.[3]

Descrizione

Portamento

È una conifera di taglia medio-grande, a portamento conico con sommità piatta negli esemplari anziani, che raggiunge altezze di 60 m e il cui tronco può avere sino a quasi 2 m di diametro. I rami principali dipartono dal tronco ad angolo retto, assumendo un portamento cadente quelli più anziani; i ramoscelli secondari sono opposti, lisci o con peluria giallastra.[4]

Foglie

Le foglie sono aghiformi, di colore grigio verde, lunghe 1,5-6 cm, con apice rotondeggiante o acuto, a forma di freccia; gli stomi sono disposti sia sulla pagina superiore (in 4-8 bande), sia su quella inferiore (in 7-12 bande). Le gemme, resinose, sono di forma inizialmente rotondeggiante, poi conica, marroni; le perule che le rivestono sono triangolari, più o meno resinose, a margine intero e punta acuta.[4]

Fiori

Gli strobili maschili all'impollinazione sono più o meno rossi, porpora, o verdi.[4]

Frutti

Gli strobili femminili, di color verde giallastro o porpora, marroni chiaro a maturazione, sono cilindrici o ellittici, lunghi fino a 12 cm e larghi fino a 4,5 cm, con corto peduncolo o sessili; le scaglie sono a forma di ventaglio, lunghe 3 cm, larghe 3,5 cm, lisce. Le brattee sono ovoidali con due ali laterali di 1,5 cm. Gli strobili maschili, pendenti, sono lunghi 2 cm, con microsporofilli rossi o rosati. I semi, cuneati, di colore marrone chiaro, sono lunghi fino a 1o mm, con ali marrone chiaro di 20 mm, oblunghe-cuneate.[3] I cotiledoni sono 5-9.[4]

Corteccia

La corteccia, liscia e grigia, con l'età si spacca in fessure longitudinali che fanno intravedere il periderma giallastro sottostante.[4]

Distribuzione e habitat

Specie endemica delle Montagne Rocciose (dall'Oregon all'Idaho) e della Catena Costiera californiana fino all'Arizona e al Colorado; in Messico presente nella Bassa California, negli stati di Chihuahua e di Sonora.[1] Importata dall'Impero Austro Ungarico ad inizi '900 in Val di Fiemme trovò grande sviluppo presso le foreste demaniali della Val Cadino, oggi adattata perfettamente all'ecositema locale. Predilige quote montane comprese tra i 600 e i 3.000 m nella parte occidentale dell'areale e tra i 1.800 e i 3.350 m nelle Montagne Rocciose con piovosità annua compresa tra 500 e 1.800 mm, con estati calde e secche e inverni freddi. Vegeta su suoli rocciosi, basaltici o granitici, talvolta anche su suoli sabbiosi. Può formare boschi puri o in associazione con Abies magnifica, Abies procera, Abies grandis, Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca, Populus tremuloides e specie del genere Pinus.[3]

Tassonomia

La classificazione di questo taxon è stata assai controversa, in particolare per quanto concerne come rappresentarne, nella nomenclatura tassonomica, la variabilità genetica; convenzionalmente si sono distinti due gruppi, concolor e iowiana. Alcuni tassonomisti (p.e. Hunt, 1993) hanno identificato una specie per ogni gruppo (A. concolor e A. iowiana), altri trattano iowiana come sottospecie o varietà di concolor, altri ancora considerano un'unica specie A. concolor senza ulteriori distinzioni di varietà o sottospecie (Farjon, 1998). Quest'ultima tendenza è attualmente prevalente, anche se vanno annotate comunque le particolarità delle diverse sub-popolazioni di A. concolor:

  • Una popolazione con caratteri morfologici uniformi è presente in Colorado e nel nord del Nuovo Messico.
  • Una popolazione nello Utah differisce da quella citata sopra per avere aghi più corti ((Wright et al. 1971, Zavarin et al. 1975).
  • Una popolazione nel sud del Nuovo Messico presenta caratteri chimici simili a quella del Colorado ((Zavarin et al. 1975).
  • Le popolazioni del sud della California sono morfologicamente similari a quelle del Nuovo Messico e dell'Arizona (Hamrick and Libby 1972).
  • Le popolazioni del Golfo di California sono le uniche a distinguersi per avere aghi molto corti e spessi, con 18 bande di stomi sulla faccia superiore degli stessi.
  • Le popolazioni del nord della California sono le uniche ad avere virgulti pubescenti e punte degli aghi a forma di freccia.
  • Gli abeti di questa specie nativi della Sierra Nevada e della Catena Costiera del nord della California sono gli unici ad avere aghi più corti e meno bande di stomi rispetto alle altre popolazioni (Hamrick and Libby 1972, Zavarin et al. 1975). Queste sub-popolazioni sono quelle identificate da Hunt (1993) come A. iowiana.

Quindi, non è da escludere che nel futuro questo taxon sia soggetto a ulteriori revisioni del suo status tassonomico.[4]

Sinonimi

Parecchie sottospecie (che taluni autori considerano come semplici varietà) classificate nel passato, attualmente sono considerate dei sinonimi:[5]

  • Abies concolor f. atroviolacea Cinovskis
  • Abies concolor var. baja-californica Silba
  • Abies concolor var. iowiana (Gordon) Lemmon
  • Abies concolor subsp. iowiana (Gordon) A.E.Murray
  • Abies concolor subsp. martinezii (Silba) Silba
  • Abies concolor subsp. viridula (Debreczy & I.Rácz) Silba
  • Abies concolor f. wattezii (Beissn.) Rehder
  • Abies grandis var. concolor (Gordon) A.Murray bis
  • Abies grandis var. iowiana (Gordon) Hoopes
  • Abies lasiocarpa var. pendula Carrière
  • Abies iowiana (Gordon) A.Murray bis
  • Abies iowiana var. viridula Debreczy & I.Rácz
  • Picea concolor Gordon
  • Picea grandis Newb.
  • Picea iowiana Gordon
  • Picea iowii Gordon
  • Picea parsonsii Fowler
  • Pinus concolor (Gordon & Glend.) Engelm. ex Parl.
  • Pinus iowiana (Gordon) W.R.McNab

Usi

Viene utilizzato nell'industria del legno, soprattutto per la fabbricazione di compensati. Il suo utilizzo come albero di Natale e come essenza per parchi e giardini, con forme di cultivar specifiche, è molto comune.[3]

Conservazione

Nonostante uno sfruttamento intensivo nel passato e nel presente, la vastità dell'areale e la sua numerosa presenza nelle località di occupanza dello stesso, fanno classificare l'abete del Colorado come specie a rischio minimo (least concern in inglese) nella Lista rossa IUCN.[1]

Galleria d'immagini

Note

  1. ^ a b c d (EN) Farjon, A. 2013., Abies concolor, su IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Versione 2020.2, IUCN, 2020.
  2. ^ Pier Luigi Nimis, Nevio Agostini, Marco Verdecchia e Elias Ceccarelli, Guida agli alberi del Parco Nazionale delle Foreste Casentinesi (PDF), su Dryades project Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita Università di Trieste, Parco Nazionale delle Foreste Casentinesi. URL consultato il 21 marzo 2019.
  3. ^ a b c d (EN) Aljos Farjon, A Handbook of the World's Conifers (2 vols.), Brill, 2010, pp. 72-74. URL consultato il 5 dicembre 2016.
  4. ^ a b c d e f (EN) Abies concolor, su The Gymnosperm Database. URL consultato il 18 aprile 2019.
  5. ^ (EN) Abies concolor (Gordon & Glend.) Lindl. ex Hildebr., in Plants of the World Online, Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. URL consultato il 26/4/2020.

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Abies concolor: Brief Summary ( Italian )

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L'abete del Colorado (Abies concolor) è una pianta della famiglia delle Pinaceae che cresce sulle zone montane dell'ovest degli Stati Uniti d'America, ad un'altitudine compresa tra 600 e 3.400 m.

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Pilkasis kėnis ( Lithuanian )

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Abies concolor range map 3.png

Pilkasis kėnis (lot. Abies concolor) – pušinių šeimai (Pinaceae) priklausanti spygliuočių medžių rūšis. Paplitusi vakarinės Šiaurės Amerikos kalnuose – Siera Nevadoje, Uoliniuose kalnuose, Didžiajame baseine, Klamato kalnuose ir kt.

Tai visžalis, spygliuotis medis, kurio aukštis siekia iki 60 m, kamieno skersmuo iki 1,9 m. Nors pasitaiko dar aukštesnių, ypač Josemičio nacionaliniame parke (Kalifornija). Pavyzdžiui, Abies concolor var. lowiana porūšis, kurio medis žinomas kaip Merced Lake Giant, augantis Merced ežero rytinėje pusėje, buvo išmatuotas (1997 metais) 66,1 m aukščio, 223 cm kamieno skersmens bei 99 m³ tūrio. Taip pat šiame parke auga ir daugiau viršijančių 60 m aukštį bei virš 200 cm kamieno skersmenimis šio porūšio medžių.

laja spirališka, vėliau tampa plokščiaviršūne. Spygliai 1,5-6 cm ilgio, apie 2,3 mm pločio, tamsiai žali. Moteriški kankorėžiai cilindriški, alyviškai žali, vėliau tamsiai rudi, 7-12 cm ilgio, 3-4,5 cm pločio, vyriški – purpuriški. Sėklos 8-12 mm ilgio[1].

Išskiriami du pilkojo kėnio porūšiai:

  • Abies concolor subsp. concolor – Uoliniuose kalnuose, nuo Aidaho iki Arizonos, vietomis šiaurės Meksikoje;
  • Abies concolor subsp. lowiana – vakarų pakrantės kalnuose, nuo Oregono iki Kalifornijos pusiasalio Meksikoje.

Mediena minkšta, nepatvari, kartais naudojama popieriaus gamybai. Pilkasis kėnis dažnai puošiamas kaip Kalėdų eglutė.

Šaltiniai


Vikiteka

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Pilkasis kėnis: Brief Summary ( Lithuanian )

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Pilkasis kėnis (lot. Abies concolor) – pušinių šeimai (Pinaceae) priklausanti spygliuočių medžių rūšis. Paplitusi vakarinės Šiaurės Amerikos kalnuose – Siera Nevadoje, Uoliniuose kalnuose, Didžiajame baseine, Klamato kalnuose ir kt.

Tai visžalis, spygliuotis medis, kurio aukštis siekia iki 60 m, kamieno skersmuo iki 1,9 m. Nors pasitaiko dar aukštesnių, ypač Josemičio nacionaliniame parke (Kalifornija). Pavyzdžiui, Abies concolor var. lowiana porūšis, kurio medis žinomas kaip Merced Lake Giant, augantis Merced ežero rytinėje pusėje, buvo išmatuotas (1997 metais) 66,1 m aukščio, 223 cm kamieno skersmens bei 99 m³ tūrio. Taip pat šiame parke auga ir daugiau viršijančių 60 m aukštį bei virš 200 cm kamieno skersmenimis šio porūšio medžių.

laja spirališka, vėliau tampa plokščiaviršūne. Spygliai 1,5-6 cm ilgio, apie 2,3 mm pločio, tamsiai žali. Moteriški kankorėžiai cilindriški, alyviškai žali, vėliau tamsiai rudi, 7-12 cm ilgio, 3-4,5 cm pločio, vyriški – purpuriški. Sėklos 8-12 mm ilgio.

Išskiriami du pilkojo kėnio porūšiai:

Abies concolor subsp. concolor – Uoliniuose kalnuose, nuo Aidaho iki Arizonos, vietomis šiaurės Meksikoje; Abies concolor subsp. lowiana – vakarų pakrantės kalnuose, nuo Oregono iki Kalifornijos pusiasalio Meksikoje.

Mediena minkšta, nepatvari, kartais naudojama popieriaus gamybai. Pilkasis kėnis dažnai puošiamas kaip Kalėdų eglutė.

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Colorado-zilverspar ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Colorado-zilverspar[bron?] (Abies concolor) is een groenblijvende conifeer uit de dennenfamilie (Pinaceae). Deze zilverspar is inheems in de bergen in het westen van Noord-Amerika. Ze groeit op hoogtes tussen 900 en 3.400 meter. De boom is matig tot erg groot: ze wordt 25 tot 60 meter hoog en kan een stamdiameter van 2 meter bereiken. In het Engels wordt de Colorado-zilverspar doorgaans white fir genoemd. Soms is er ook sprake van de Concolor fir.

Ondersoorten, beschrijving en verspreiding

Er worden twee ondersoorten erkend. Sommige botanici behandelen ze als volwaardige soorten, anderen dan weer als variëteiten.

  • Abies concolor subsp. concolor (Engels: Colorado white fir, Rocky Mountains white fir)
    Deze ondersoort komt van nature voor op hoogtes tussen 1.700 en 3.400 meter boven de zeespiegel in de Rocky Mountains in het zuidoosten van Idaho, in Utah, Colorado, Arizona en New Mexico, in het oosten van Nevada en op enkele locaties in het zuidoosten van Californië en de Mexicaanse staat Sonora. Deze boom verdraagt wintertemperaturen tot -40 °C.
    Deze variëteit is doorgaans kleiner (25 tot 35 m hoog, uitzonderlijk tot 45 m). De schors is glad en donkergrijs. De kroon is luchtig en meestal tot op hoge leeftijd kegelvormig. De naalden zijn 3,5 à 6 cm lang en staan minder dicht opeen dan bij de andere ondersoort. Ze zijn dik, grijsblauwig en staan allemaal verticaal naar boven gebogen (zoals bij de edelspar).[1] De naalden vertonen veel stomata.
  • Abies concolor subsp. Iowiana (ruwe Colorado-zilverspar; Engels: Low's white fir, Sierra Nevada white fir)
    Deze variëteit groeit op hoogtes tussen 900 en 2.700 meter in de Cascades van Centraal- en Zuid-Oregon en in de Klamath Mountains en Sierra Nevada in Californië. De verspreiding loopt door tot in Zuid-Californië en de Mexicaanse staat Baja California. De koudste temperaturen die deze boom verdraagt liggen rond -30 °C.
    Deze westelijke variëteit is beduidend groter: 40 tot 60 meter hoog. Als jonge boom is de ruwe Colorado-zilverspar sierlijk kegelvormig; later wordt hij koepelvormig (behalve op beschutte plaatsen). De schors is gekloofd, kurkachtig en al snel veel ruwer dan andere zilversparren. De naalden zijn 2,5 à 5 cm lang en slechts licht grijsblauwig van boven, met weinig of geen stomata. Ze lijken op de naalden van de reuzenzilverspar, al hebben bomen uit het zuiden van het verspreidingsgebied grijzere en zijdelings schuin uitstaande naalden.[1]

De Colorado-zilverspar, in beide variëteiten, is slechts zelden in grote tuinen aangeplant in Europa. Er bestaan cultivars zoals 'Candicans' (met opvallend licht, zilverig loof) en 'Wattezii' (met eerst geelwit en daarna blauwgrijs loof).[1]

Fotogalerij

Abies concolor subsp. concolor
Abies concolor subsp. lowiana

Externe link

Bronnen, noten en/of referenties
  1. a b c Johnson & More 2005, p. 76.
Wikimedia Commons Zie de categorie Abies concolor van Wikimedia Commons voor mediabestanden over dit onderwerp.
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Colorado-zilverspar: Brief Summary ( Dutch; Flemish )

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De Colorado-zilverspar[bron?] (Abies concolor) is een groenblijvende conifeer uit de dennenfamilie (Pinaceae). Deze zilverspar is inheems in de bergen in het westen van Noord-Amerika. Ze groeit op hoogtes tussen 900 en 3.400 meter. De boom is matig tot erg groot: ze wordt 25 tot 60 meter hoog en kan een stamdiameter van 2 meter bereiken. In het Engels wordt de Colorado-zilverspar doorgaans white fir genoemd. Soms is er ook sprake van de Concolor fir.

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Coloradoedelgran ( Norwegian )

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Coloradoedelgran eller Coloradogran (latin: Abies concolor) er en art av bartrær i edelgranslekten innenfor furufamilien.[1] Den tilhører gruppen Kjempeedelgraner innen sin slekt, og har to underarter – colorado(edel)gran og Sierra Nevada-gran.

Treet blir 25–60 meter høyt, og har en diameter nederst på inntil 2 meter. Nålene til coloradoedelgran har butt spiss, og har lyst bånd på undersiden. De er inntil 6 cm lange. Konglene kan bli hele 12 cm lange, er avlange med tykke, og tett skjelldekte med lite frøåpning mellom skjellene. Konglen er mørk brun eller rødbrun.

Vekstsonen i Nord-Amerika går fra 900–3400 moh., og treet vokser der i Sierra Nevada og i Rocky Mountains. Treet har også spredd seg i Norge, via planting i skogbruket.

Varianter

Coloradoedelgran består av mange populasjoner som har vært adskilt lenge. En kan dele populasjonene i to hovedgrupper, som her betraktes som underarter. Flora of North America velger å oppfatte dem som to adskilte arter.

  • subsp concolorIdaho, Utah, Arizona, Colorado, 1700–3400 moh., er 23–35 meter høyt og tåler temperaturer ned til −40 °C. Nåleveksten er opprett og oppoverpekende, og nålene kan være kurvet.
  • subsp. lowianaOregon, Sierra Nevada, nordligste Mexico, 900–2700 moh., er 40–60 meter høyt og tåler ned til −30 °C. Nåleveksten er flat eller svakt opprett, og nålene rette.

Referanser

  1. ^ Lennart Stenberg (red), Steinar Moen (norsk red), Gyldendals Store Nordiske Flora, 2003, (2007), side 60.

Litteratur

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Kongler og nåler

Eksterne lenker

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Coloradoedelgran: Brief Summary ( Norwegian )

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Coloradoedelgran eller Coloradogran (latin: Abies concolor) er en art av bartrær i edelgranslekten innenfor furufamilien. Den tilhører gruppen Kjempeedelgraner innen sin slekt, og har to underarter – colorado(edel)gran og Sierra Nevada-gran.

Treet blir 25–60 meter høyt, og har en diameter nederst på inntil 2 meter. Nålene til coloradoedelgran har butt spiss, og har lyst bånd på undersiden. De er inntil 6 cm lange. Konglene kan bli hele 12 cm lange, er avlange med tykke, og tett skjelldekte med lite frøåpning mellom skjellene. Konglen er mørk brun eller rødbrun.

Vekstsonen i Nord-Amerika går fra 900–3400 moh., og treet vokser der i Sierra Nevada og i Rocky Mountains. Treet har også spredd seg i Norge, via planting i skogbruket.

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Jodła kalifornijska ( Polish )

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Jodła kalifornijska, jodła jednobarwna (Abies concolor (Gordon et Glend.)Lindl. ex Hildebr.) – gatunek drzewa należący do rodziny sosnowatych. Występuje w centralnej części Ameryki Północnej, na obszarach górskich w Kalifornii, Utah i Kolorado. W Górach Skalistych rośnie na wysokościach do 3500 m n.p.m.

Morfologia

 src=
Pokrój drzewa rosnącego w Parku Skaryszewskim w Warszawie
Pokrój
Regularny, wyniosły, wąskostożkowy pokrój. Korona z zaokrąglonym wierzchołkiem. Pień dorasta od 20 do 40 m wysokości.
Liście
Bardzo długie igły (4-7 cm), miękkie, szablasto wzniesione, z zaokrąglonymi wierzchołkami, z obu stron szarozielone lub niebieskawe.
Szyszki
Stojące, długości 7-13 cm, walcowate, w odcieniach zieleni i fioletu.

Biologia i ekologia

Gatunek szybko rosnący, tolerancyjny w stosunku do siedliska. Wykazuje dużą odporność na mrozy. Dobrze rośnie na otwartych i wietrznych stanowiskach. Rośliny tego gatunku są światłożądne, na stanowisku ocienionym rosną słabiej i szybko gubią dolne gałęzie. Dobrze rosną na średnio wilgotnych, suchych lub żwirowatych glebach, ubogich w składniki odżywcze. Odporna na suszę i zanieczyszczenie powietrza.

 src=
Abies concolor

Zastosowanie

Roślina ozdobna: sadzona najczęściej w parkach jako soliter lub w grupach.

Przypisy

  1. Czerwona Księga Gatunków Zagrożonych (ang.). [dostęp 12 czerwca 2009].
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Jodła kalifornijska: Brief Summary ( Polish )

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Jodła kalifornijska, jodła jednobarwna (Abies concolor (Gordon et Glend.)Lindl. ex Hildebr.) – gatunek drzewa należący do rodziny sosnowatych. Występuje w centralnej części Ameryki Północnej, na obszarach górskich w Kalifornii, Utah i Kolorado. W Górach Skalistych rośnie na wysokościach do 3500 m n.p.m.

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Abies concolor ( Portuguese )

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Abies concolor é um abeto nativo das montanhas do oeste da América do Norte. O seu habitat esta localizado em altitudes de 900 a 3 400 metros. É uma árvore conífera que cresce 25-60 metros de altura e alcança um diâmetro de até 2 metros.[1][2][3]

Referências

  1. «Plant Fact Sheet: White Fir Abies concolor» (PDF). Consultado em 6 de maio de 2018
  2. Farjon, A. (2013). «Abies concolor». Lista Vermelha de Espécies Ameaçadas. 2013: e.T42276A2969061. doi:
  3. (em inglês) Abies concolor em Flora of North America
 src=
Semente de Abies concolor.

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Abies concolor: Brief Summary ( Portuguese )

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Abies concolor é um abeto nativo das montanhas do oeste da América do Norte. O seu habitat esta localizado em altitudes de 900 a 3 400 metros. É uma árvore conífera que cresce 25-60 metros de altura e alcança um diâmetro de até 2 metros.

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Coloradogran ( Swedish )

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Coloradogran (Abies concolor) är ett barrträd i ädelgransläktet, Coloradogranen förekommer naturligt i västra Nordamerikas bergskedjor, på en höjd mellan 900–3 400 meter. Den är städsegrön och blir medelstor till stor, med en höjd på mellan 25–60 meter och en stam som kan mäta upp till 2 meter i diameter. Coloradogranen är populär som odlat prydnadsträd och används även som julgran.

Underarter

Coloradogranen delas ofta upp i två underarter, Abies concolor subsp. concolor och Abies concolor subsp. lowiana (alternativt som egen art: Abies lowiana).

Synonymer

I boken Flora öfver Sveriges Kulturväxter (1893) beskrivs arten Abies concolor med det svenska namnet kalifornisk silvergran[3]. Stavningsvarianten koloradogran är också giltig enligt Svensk Taxonomisk Databas. [4]

Externa länkar

Referenser

  1. ^ Tropicos
  2. ^ The Plant List
  3. ^ 2011: CBM:s skriftserie 58 (ISBN 978-91-89232-70-9). Tryck SLU Reproenheten Alnarp 2011, Centrum för Biologisk Mångfald. Prydnadsträd och prydnadsbuskar hos två svenska plantskolor 1836 till 1946 av Anna Andréasson
  4. ^ Svensk Taxonomisk Databas
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Coloradogran: Brief Summary ( Swedish )

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Coloradogran (Abies concolor) är ett barrträd i ädelgransläktet, Coloradogranen förekommer naturligt i västra Nordamerikas bergskedjor, på en höjd mellan 900–3 400 meter. Den är städsegrön och blir medelstor till stor, med en höjd på mellan 25–60 meter och en stam som kan mäta upp till 2 meter i diameter. Coloradogranen är populär som odlat prydnadsträd och används även som julgran.

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Gümüş göknar ( Turkish )

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Gümüş göknarı (Abies concolor), çamgiller (Pinaceae) familyasından doğal olarak Kuzey Amerika'nın batısında yetişen göknar türü.

Morfolojik özellikleri

35–45 m kadar boylanır. Gövde açık renkli ve pürüzlü dallar yanlara doğru yatay olarak çıkar. Hafifçe aşağıya doğru eğiktir. Dallar topraktan tepeye kadar ve çok sıktır.

Kozalaklar 10 cm uzunluktadır. İğne yapraklar diğer türlere oranla daha uzun 2.5–6 cm, mavimsi gri renkli alt ve üstte mavimsi beyaz çizgiler vardır.

Ekolojik özellikleri

Güneşli ve yarı gölge alanlarda kuru kumlu, killi topraklarda iyi gelişir. Toprak isteği bakımından daha az seçicidir. Yavaş büyür.

Alt türler

  • Abies concolor subsp. concolor
  • Abies concolor subsp. lowiana

Dış bağlantılar

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Gümüş göknar: Brief Summary ( Turkish )

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Gümüş göknarı (Abies concolor), çamgiller (Pinaceae) familyasından doğal olarak Kuzey Amerika'nın batısında yetişen göknar türü.

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Ялиця одноколірна ( Ukrainian )

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  1. Farjon, A. (2013) Abies concolor: інформація на сайті МСОП (версія 2013.1) (англ.) 03 March 2011


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Abies concolor ( Vietnamese )

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Abies concolor là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được (Gordon) Lindl. ex Hildebr. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1861.[1]

Chú thích

  1. ^ The Plant List (2010). Abies concolor. Truy cập ngày 9 tháng 8 năm 2013.

Liên kết ngoài


Hình tượng sơ khai Bài viết liên quan đến Bộ Thông này vẫn còn sơ khai. Bạn có thể giúp Wikipedia bằng cách mở rộng nội dung để bài được hoàn chỉnh hơn.
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Abies concolor: Brief Summary ( Vietnamese )

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Abies concolor là một loài thực vật hạt trần trong họ Thông. Loài này được (Gordon) Lindl. ex Hildebr. miêu tả khoa học đầu tiên năm 1861.

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Пихта одноцветная ( Russian )

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Шишки пихты одноцветной

Пихта одноцветная — мощное (диаметр ствола до 1,9 метра), высокое (до 60 метров) дерево с широкой конической кроной, густой в молодости и относительно редкой и опущенной в старости; острой шпилевидной вершиной (у старых деревьев она становится более плоской)[2][13].

 src=
Кора пихты одноцветной

Кора серая, гладкая, твёрдая; толщина у основания дерева у взрослых деревьев 10—15 см, может достигать 18 см, с глубокими продольными бороздами, устойчива к действию огня[14]. Скелетные ветви расположены под прямым углом к стволу, склонны с возрастом к провисанию. Разветвляющиеся веточки мелкие, гладкие, с желтоватым опушением, обычно направленные вверх. Почки жёлто-зелёные, тупые и смолистые, длиной около 6 см[2][13].

Иглы плоские, зелёные или голубовато-зелёные, с серовато-белыми линиями с обеих сторон[15], часто серповидно-изогнутые, на верхушке округло- или тупозаострённые, со слабо расширенным основанием, несимметрично расположенные[16]. Длина 1,5—6 см, ширина 2—3 мм. На нижней поверхности иглы имеется 4—8 рядов устьиц по обеим сторонам центральной жилки. На верхней поверхности аналогично расположены 7—12 (5—18) рядов устьиц. Обладают острым запахом, напоминающим камфору[13][17].

Мужские стробилы красные или фиолетовые, женские — зелёные. Шишки крупные, сидячие, овально-цилиндрические, длиной 7—12 см, шириной 3—4,5 см; в начале созревания оливково-зелёные, затем становятся жёлто-коричневыми и тёмно-коричневыми. Чешуйки размером 2,5—3 × 2,8—3,8 см, кроющие короче семенных. Семена коричневые с розоватым крылом, длиной 8—13 мм; семядолей 5—9 (по другим данным 5—7[18])[2][13]. В одном килограмме содержится от 22 000 до 33 000 семян[19]; средний вес 1000 штук составляет примерно 35 грамм[2].

Число хромосом 2n = 24[13].

Разновидности

 src=
Иглы пихты (var. lowiana)

У пихты одноцветной признаны две разновидности, основанные на различиях в морфологических (различие в длине и в форме кончиков игл) и химических характеристиках (различное содержание терпенов[20])[18][21]:

  • Abies concolor var. concolor: местное название — «пихта Скалистых гор» (англ. Rocky Mountain white fir);
  • Abies concolor var. lowiana (Gordon) Lemmon (1895): местное название — «Калифорнийская пихта» (англ. California white fir).

Разновидности lowiana и concolor можно отличить следующим образом[13]:

Ключ var. concolor var. lowiana Адаксиальная сторона игл центральная жилка с серовато-зелёным оттенком центральная жилка неотличима по цвету 12 (7—18) рядов устьиц 7 (5—9) рядов устьиц Длина игл 4—6 (2—6) см 2—4 (2—6) см Кончики игл нижних ветвей обычно закруглённые слабо зубчатые Распространение в США широко представлена в западных штатах, не встречается в горах Сьерра-Невада встречается в горах Сьерра-Невада и северных горных прибрежных районах Калифорнии

Распространение

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Ареал пихты одноцветной

Пихта одноцветная — распространённое дерево в западной и юго-западной части Североамериканского континента. Её природный ареал простирается от Голубых гор (штат Орегон) на севере до Каскадных гор, через всю Калифорнию и далее на юг в горы Сан-Педро-Мартир (англ. Sierra de San Pedro Mártir) в Нижней Калифорнии (Мексика); через всю южную часть штата Айдахо до Вайоминга — в северной границе и через всю южную часть плато Колорадо к югу Скалистых гор в Юте и Колорадо. Изолированные пихтовые леса можно обнаружить в горах южной Аризоны и Нью-Мексико, а также в северной части Мексики[21].

Разновидность Abies concolor var. concolor встречается в горных районах центральной и южной части Колорадо, в юго-восточном Айдахо и Неваде, распространяясь на юг до юго-восточной и южной Калифорнии, Аризоны и Нью-Мексико, с локализованными группами на северо-западе Мексики. Изредка экземпляры этой пихты можно увидеть в горах восточной части пустыни Мохаве в Калифорнии. Пихта Скалистых гор часто встречается на восточной окраине Большого Бассейна, разделяющего более чем на 300 км две разновидности одного вида[21].

 src=
Пихта одноцветная (Abies concolor var. lowiana) на горе Сан-Хасинто, Калифорния

Разновидность Abies concolor var. lowiana растёт, в основном, в горах Сьерра-Невада, Кламат и Сискью (англ. Siskiyou Mountains) в Калифорнии, а также в западной части Невады на восточных склонах гор Сьерра-Невада[21].

Полный список мест естественного обитания (в алфавитном порядке):

Мексика, штаты[22]: США, штаты[23]:

Отмечается, что крупные искусственные ландшафтные посадки пихты одноцветной на севере и северо-востоке США позволяют включить в перечень распространения дерева штаты Мэн и Массачусетс[21].

Дерево занесено в опубликованный в 1998 году[К 4] Красный список угрожаемых видов, категория LC (низкий риск)[22].

Экология

Естественные условия произрастания

Естественные условия произрастания пихты одноцветной — районы с умеренно влажным климатом (минимальный годовой объём осадков 500 мм; лучшие условия развития от 900 до 1900 мм в год), продолжительной зимой, умеренным или обильным снежным покровом. Большинство пихт растёт на высоте в 1200—3000 метров вдоль западной Сьерра-Невады[24]. Минимальная продолжительность безморозного периода 80 дней[25].

 src=
Пихта одноцветная в естественной среде (смешанный лес, горы Сан-Педро-Мартир, Нижняя Калифорния, Мексика)

Разновидность Abies concolor var. concolor растёт, преимущественно, в высокогорных районах с продолжительной снежной зимой и относительно коротким вегетационным периодом, с примерно равномерным распределением осадков в течение лета. Среднегодовой объём осадков варьируется от 510 до 890 мм. Разновидность Abies concolor var. lowiana встречается как в холодных горных областях, так и тёплых равнинных районах, предпочитая более влажный климат: среднегодовой объём осадков колеблется от 890 до 1900 мм и даже более. Лучше всего эта пихта растёт на юге Каскадных гор и западных склонах Сьерра-Невады[26].

Пихта, как правило, достаточно устойчива к относительно широкому диапазону параметров почвы, включая её структуру, кислотность и содержание питательных веществ; чувствительна к избытку влаги и недостатку почвенного азота[26].

Дерево предпочитает глубокие, рыхлые, умеренно кислые, хорошо дренированные почвы на основе различных почвообразующих пород: андезита, базальта, гранита, пемзы, песчаника и сланца[24].

 src=
Соседство сосны жёлтой с пихтой одноцветной (Орегон)

Наиболее частыми соседями пихты одноцветной в смешанных хвойных лесах Калифорнии и Орегона являются пихта великая (Abies grandis), земляничное дерево Мензиса (Arbutus menziesii), литокарпус густоцветковый (Lithocarpus densiflorus), калоцедрус низбегающий (Calocedrus decurrens), сосна Жеффрея (Pinus jeffreyi) и сосна Ламберта (Pinus lambertiana), сосна жёлтая (Pinus ponderosa) и сосна скрученная (Pinus contorta), псевдотсуга Мензиса (Pseudotsuga menziesii), дуб Келлога (Quercus kelloggii). В центральной части Сьерра-Невады сподвижником пихты является сравнительно редкий секвойядендрон гигантский (Sequoiadendron giganteum)[26].

В Скалистых горах рядом соседствуют псевдотсуга Мензиса (Pseudotsuga menziesii), сосна жёлтая (Pinus ponderosa), пихта субальпийская (Abies lasiocarpa), ель колючая (Picea pungens) и ель Энгельмана (Picea engelmannii), тополь осинообразный (Populus tremuloides)[11].

Пихта одноцветная является доминантом смешанных хвойных лесов в пределах своего ареала и только в северных его границах (штат Орегон) тсуга западная (Tsuga heterophylla), а также, возможно, на западе туя складчатая (Thuja plicata) могут составить ей конкуренцию на особенно влажных участках. В высокогорных районах пихта доминирует безраздельно, образуя иногда чистые насаждения[26].

Пихта одноцветная занимает важную экологическую нишу в местах своего естественного произрастания. Многие мелкие млекопитающие (мыши, белки, бурундуки и пр.) и птицы (куропатки, синицы и пр.) питаются семенами дерева, чернохвостый олень (Odocoileus hemionus) поедает молодые побеги, тетерев голубой (Dendragapus obscurus) — хвою, а североамериканский дикобраз (Erethizon dorsatum) обгладывает кору молодых деревьев[27].

Культивирование

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Пихта одноцветная в культуре[К 5]

Общие требования

По засухоустойчивости пихта одноцветная стоит на одном из первых мест среди пихт, культивируемых в Средней полосе России, хорошо переносит не очень морозные зимы, относительно ветроустойчива, благодаря позднему распусканию почек весенними заморозками не повреждается, очень светолюбива, хорошо переносит городские условия и неблагоприятные факторы внешней среды[7].

Хорошо растёт на свежих глубоких супесях и суглинках, но может расти на других видах почвы, предпочитая слегка кислую среду; требуемый диапазон pH: 5,5—7,8[25]. Чувствительна к засолению почвы[28].

Молодые саженцы пихты могут расти в затенённых условиях, но при полном солнечном освещении они развиваются значительно лучше[11].

По методологии Министерства сельского хозяйства США[29] пихта одноцветная может культивироваться в зонах 3—7[30] (по другим данным: 4—8[31]).

Исследования японских учёных показали, что предельная морозоустойчивость зимних побегов пихты составляет −35 °C для верхушечных почек и −70 °C для побегов и хвои[4].

На территории России дерево может культивироваться от Санкт-Петербурга до Черноморского побережья, при этом плодоносит в западной части лесной и степной зоны, а также на Кавказе[2].

Уход

После посадки молодого деревца с тонким стволом, как правило, требуется обеспечить его защиту от сильного ветра с помощью специальных подпорок. Необходимо избегать также чрезмерного прямого солнечного освещения: лучше использовать небольшую полутень. Удобряют растение после укоренения и далее каждые 2—3 года в конце зимы или в начале осени[32].

В первый сезон после посадки (пересадки) пихта требует регулярного равномерного увлажнения почвы, обычно один раз в 2—3 недели (без переувлажнения), затем можно искусственный полив прекратить, возобновляя его лишь во время засухи[32].

В начале весны с повышением дневной температуры можно провести профилактическую обработку деревьев пестицидами для защиты от потенциальных насекомых-вредителей; рекомендуется также обработка фунгицидами широкого спектра действия для предотвращения развития грибковых заболеваний, особенно в условиях избыточной влажности[32].

Пересадку пихты осуществляют только с закрытой корневой системой, используя сформированный земляной ком, обёрнутый специальной грубой джутовой или льняной тканью. Неправильная подрезка корней резко уменьшает шансы укоренения растения на новом месте[30].

Размножение

Пихту, как это происходит и в естественных условиях, обычно размножают семенами; при этом при посадке рекомендуется помещать от 10 до 15 семян на каждое посадочное место. Новые всходы появляются весной, причём прорастают обычно менее 50 % семян. Сеянцы выдерживают на одном месте без пересадки от двух до четырёх лет. При планировании больших площадей посадки и отсутствии необходимых саженцев обычно содержится не менее десяти семенных деревьев пихты на гектар[24].

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Раскрытие созревших шишек и распространение семян пихты одноцветной

При посадке рекомендуется предварительная стратификация семян при температуре 1—5 °C (оптимум 1 °C) в течение 1 месяца, при этом прорастание семян происходит лучше на свету. Всхожесть свежесобранных семян осенней посадки достигает 60—80 %; при весенней посадке: 10—30 %[33].

Рекомендуемая плотность посадки составляет приблизительно от 700 до 3000 деревьев на гектар[25].

Онтогенез

Пихта — мощное и высокое дерево: на Тихоокеанском побережье экземпляры высотой 40—55 метров и 100—165 сантиметров в диаметре являются обычными[К 6][11]. В юго-западных штатах деревья имеют, в среднем, высоту в 41 метр и диаметр 127 сантиметров[11]. Своего лучшего развития пихта достигает в центральной части Сьерра-Невады в Калифорнии, где отдельные экземпляры достигают 58,5 метров высоты, обхват ствола — 271 сантиметр[26].

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Созревшие шишки пихты одноцветной

Согласно американскому «Национальному реестру больших деревьев» (англ. National Register of Big Trees) за 2008—2009 гг., самая большая пихта одноцветная (var. lowiana) была обнаружена на берегу озера Мерсед в Йосемитском национальном парке (Калифорния) в 1997 году. Её высота составляла 66,1 м, диаметр ствола — 223 см, обхват ствола — около 7 м, диаметр разрастания корней — 119,2 м, объём ствола — 99 м³. Этому дереву было дано имя Гигант озера Мерсед (англ. Merced Lake Giant)[13][34]. Самая крупная пихта одноцветная (var. concolor) из местечка Кочити (англ. Cochiti) (Нью-Мексико) по измерениям 2005 года имела высоту 47,55 м, обхват ствола — 4,57 м[35].

Пихта живёт около 350 лет (в условиях культуры не более 300 лет), при этом растёт медленно, особенно в первые пять лет или даже дольше[11]. В естественных условиях к двадцати годам дерево может достичь высоты 6 метров (максимум). Активный период роста приходится на весенне-летний период[25].

В условиях средней широты Европы высота взрослого дерева к 20-и годам достигает 5—10 метров, к 50-и годам: 15—20 метров[К 7][2].

Пихта — однодомное растение. Красноватые мужские стробилы, как правило, длиной менее 1,6 см, плотно сгруппированы в середине кроны на нижней части однолетнего побега; женские стробилы также расположены на однолетних побегах, но чаще в верхней части кроны, хотя изредка как мужские, так и женские шишки могут находиться на одной ветке. Цветёт пихта в мае — июне (для разновидности concolor на больших высотах — вплоть до июля), оплодотворение происходит вскоре после этого[26].

Созревшие шишки начинают раскрываться в конце сентября или начале октября, при этом обильный урожай семян наблюдается примерно каждые 2—5 лет[24].

Пихта одноцветная достаточно легко скрещивается с другими видами своего рода. Достоверно установлены гибриды со следующими видами[36]:

  • Abies balsamea;
  • Abies fraseri;
  • Abies grandis;
  • Abies religiosa.

Предположительно или недостаточно достоверно установлена гибридизация со следующими видами:

  • Abies alba;
  • Abies amabilis;
  • Abies cephalonica;
  • Abies nordmanniana;
  • Abies procera;
  • Abies sibirica.

Вредители и болезни

В целом, насекомые не причиняют серьёзного ущерба этому виду, однако в ряде случаев существует опасность негативного воздействия[30].

Наибольший вред пихте одноцветной наносит короед Scolytus ventralis, являющийся главным вредителем пихтовых лесов западных штатов Северной Америки[К 8]. Насекомое поражает как молодые, так и взрослые пихты, при этом вспышки происходят, преимущественно, из-за стресса деревьев, вызванного неблагоприятными условиями: засухой, болезнями или опадением хвои. Деревья могут быть полностью уничтожены, а выжившие — повторно атакованы вредителем[37].

Насекомых, колонизирующих на шишках пихты одноцветной, можно разделить на три условных группы:

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Пихта одноцветная, паразитируемая Arceuthobium abietinum (Арцеутобиум пихтовый)

Среди вредителей пихты встречаются и круглые черви, в частности: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Сосновая древесная нематода)[39]. Основными переносчиками нематод на родине пихты одноцветной являются чёрные усачи. Проникая в древесину здорового дерева, они питаются на эпителиальных клетках смоляных каналов и при благоприятных условиях быстро размножаются и расселяются по всему дереву; при этом поражённые ветки усыхают. В настоящее время Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (Сосновая древесная нематода) внесена в карантинные списки многих стран, включая Россию[40].

Главным растительным вредителем пихты одноцветной является паразитическое растение арцеутобиум пихтовый из рода Арцеутобиум. Оно прорастает на ветвях дерева, при этом корни проникают во флоэму скелетных ветвей дерева-хозяина. Арцеутобиум ослабляет дерево, делая его беззащитным перед грибковыми инфекциями и неблагоприятным воздействием насекомых-вредителей, а также образует язвы на стволе, делая непригодным для промышленного использования[41].

Пихта одноцветная высокочувствительна к ламинатной корневой гнили, вызываемой грибом Phellinus weirii[42]. Среди патогенных грибов, паразитирующих на пихте, наиболее распространены Echinodontium tinctorium, Heterobasidion annosum, Pholiota limonella, Hericium abietis, Stereum sanguinolentum, Perenniporia subacida и Amylostereum chailletii[43].

Серьёзный ущерб пихте одноцветной наносит и ядровая гниль, вызываемая грибами рода Fomes и некоторыми другими. Из-за неё в США потери деловой древесины составляют около 15 % всего коммерческого объёма[44].

Химический состав

Химический состав абсолютно сухой древесины пихты одноцветной[К 9][45]:

По другим данным, химический состав древесины[К 9], а также её растворимость в различных средах выглядит следующим образом[46]:

Химический состав, % Растворимость, % холо-целлюлоза
[К 10] альфа-целлюлоза
[К 11] пентозаны лигнин зола 1 % NaOH горячая вода C2H5OH/C6H6 (C2H5)2O 66,0 49,0 6,0 28,0 0,4 13,0 5,0 2,0 0,3 Масло, получаемое экстракционным методом из семян пихты одноцветной, имеет следующий жирнокислотный состав[К 12][47]:
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Линолевая кислота — основной компонент масла семян пихты одноцветной
Эфирное масло, получаемое из хвои и веточек пихты одноцветной, имеет следующий химический состав[48]: Некоторые компоненты эфирного масла пихты одноцветной Эфирное масло, получаемое из коры пихты одноцветной, имеет следующий химический состав (приблизительно)[49]: Некоторые компоненты эфирного масла коры пихты одноцветной

Изучение химического состава коры дерева показало, что в ней содержится большое количество флавоноидов и, в частности, катехинов (извлекаемое количество до 16,62 % из луба 241-летнего дерева)[50].

Отметим также, что пихта одноцветная входит в перечень воздушно-аллергенных растений[51].

Свойства и характеристики древесины

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Вид распила пихты одноцветной

Заболонь и сердцевина пихты имеют окраску от практически белой до почти красно-коричневой. Древесина дерева имеет относительно грубую текстуру и не обладает специфическими вкусом или запахом. Обычно она имеет прямолинейную структуру и не подвергается короблению при правильной сушке. Обладает умеренной или низкой прочностью, гибкостью, показателями сопротивления деформации и стойкости к ударным нагрузкам; восприимчива к бактериальному поражению: требует обработки антисептиком, при этом проникновение консервантов в глубь древесины затруднено. Хорошо держит клей и краску[52].

Древесина пихты одноцветной лёгкая, удобная и простая в обработке, мало подвержена раскалыванию, однако гвозди удерживает умеренно[24].

Свежесрубленная древесина имеет влажность 98 % для ядровой древесины и 160 % для заболони (расчёт основан относительно абсолютно сухой древесины)[53].

Плотность свежесрубленной древесины[К 13] составляет примерно 720—740 кг/м³, высушенной (12 % влажности): 435—440 кг/м³[54].

Механические свойства древесины[К 14] представлены в таблице[52][55]:

Относительная плотность
[К 15] Модуль упругости,
ГПа Предел прочности на разрыв,
МПа Предел прочности при сжатии вдоль волокон,
МПа Предел прочности при сжатии поперёк волокон,
МПа Предельно допустимая нагрузка,
кДж/м³ Твёрдость,
H Предел прочности на сдвиг,
МПа Свежесрубленная древесина 0,37 8,0 40,7 20,2 1,93 38,61 1510 5,24 Высушенная древесина (12 % влажности) 0,39 10,3 67,6 40,0 3,65 49,60 2130 7,58

Усадка при высыхании, %[52]:

Тип усадки Содержание влаги в образце после сушки 0 % 6 % 20 % В тангенциальном направлении 7,0 5,7 2,4 Объёмная усадка 9,8 7,8 3,3 В радиальном направлении 3,3 2,6 1,1

Значение и применение

Применение в целлюлозно-бумажной и деревообрабатывающей промышленности

Из пихт, произрастающих в западной части США, пихта одноцветная и ещё пять других видов пихт[К 16] — промышленное название группы «белая пихта» (англ. white fir) — имеют коммерческое значение и заготавливаются в промышленных масштабах[56].

Производство пиломатериалов из «белой пихты» в США в XX веке колебалось значительным образом: минимальное значение пришлось на 1930-е годы (около 150—285 тыс. м³ в год), затем, начиная с 1940 года, объёмы начали резко расти, достигнув максимума в 1959 году — чуть менее 6700 тыс. м³. В 1960-е и 1970-е годы производство колебалось на уровне 4700—5900 тыс. м³, стабилизировавшись к 1980 году на 5000 тыс. м³. Суммарный объём лесозаготовок пихты по данным на 1976 год составил порядка 14,2 млн м³[11].

Древесина пихты является одной из наиболее универсальных хвойных пород Америки и используется для изготовления разнообразных строительных материалов, особенно она подходит для изготовления опор и свай[41].

Пиломатериалы из пихты отличаются отсутствием смоляных выделений и приятной текстурой. Весенняя древесина имеет практически белый цвет, а летняя — красновато-коричневый оттенок, при этом контраст между заболонью и ядром настолько незначительны, что часто бывают неразличимы[57].

Основными направлениями использования древесины и пиломатериалов пихты одноцветной являются: домостроение, изготовление деревянной тары, сооружение временных деревянных конструкций; производство оконных рам, дверей и различных столярных изделий[56].

Дерево применяют также для изготовления опалубки и стропил, деревянного каркаса для обшивки стен и настила для крыш, сайдинга. Промышленное назначение связано с производством фанеры, поддонов, мебельных деталей, столярных плит[11].

Древесные отходы пихты можно использовать в качестве дров, хотя они и не производят большого количества тепла[41].

Древесина пихты — ценное сырьё для получения хвойной целлюлозы, при этом средняя длина древесного волокна этой породы очень высока[К 17]: 4,63 мм (для сравнения: сосна Ламберта (Pinus lambertiana) — 4,47 мм, тсуга канадская (Tsuga canadensis) — 4,01 мм, ель канадская (Picea canadensis) — 3,53 мм, пихта бальзамическая (Abies balsamea) — 3,10 мм)[58].

По исследованием американских учёных, пихта одноцветная может быть успешно использована для производства топливного этанола[59].

Применение в парфюмерии и медицине

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Эфирное масло, полученное из пихты одноцветной

Эфирное масло, полученное из пихты одноцветной, имеет свежий, бодрящий аромат, а благодаря высокому содержанию терпенов, обладает сильным антиоксидантным действием и благоприятно воздействует на иммунную систему. Используется в качестве ароматического средства, а также при проведении массажа[60].

Индейцы[К 18] широко использовали пихту в медицинских целях: хвоя применялась для облегчения боли, вызванной ревматизмом и лёгочными заболеваниями; смола — для лечения порезов, язв и фурункулов, а также для приготовления отваров при лечении венерических заболеваний; настоем коры пытались лечить туберкулёз[61].

Аборигены Нью-Мексико использовали смолу пихты для лечения зубов[62].

Экстракты из коры пихты одноцветной показали противоопухолевую активность в отношении аденокарциномы двенадцатиперстной кишки при проведении испытаний в Национальном центре химиотерапии рака, США (англ. Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Center). Один из активных компонентов оказался сложным комплексным танином[63].

Прочее применение

В Калифорнии и других юго-западных штатах США пихта одноцветная используется в качестве рождественской ели[64]: она приятно пахнет, хорошо держит форму и долго не осыпается после срезки[24].

Индейцы племени Кламат использовали кору дерева для окраски оленьих шкур в более тёмный оттенок коричневого цвета[61].

Многие коренные американцы используют пихту одноцветную для приготовления чая[62].

Как устойчивое к засухе и жаре дерево, пихта одноцветная часто используется для ландшафтных посадок в сельской местности и пригородах на севере Соединённых Штатов.

Благодаря способности пихты стабилизировать почву, её используют для укрепления грунта при строительстве дорог[41].

Уникальное свойство растения заключается в способности очищать воздух, загрязнённый диоксидом серы (SO2)[65].

Декоративные свойства

Начало культивирования растения приходится на 1851 год, когда Уильям Лобб (англ. William Lobb) интродуцировал пихту в английском питомнике «Veitch» (англ. Veitch Nurseries)[66].

Обладая высокими декоративными свойствами (по мнению экспертов[7][67]), пихта одноцветная применяется в ландшафтном дизайне и строительстве в солитерных или небольших групповых посадках. Хорошо сочетается с лиственницами, особенно осенью, когда на фоне их жёлтой хвои наиболее ярко проявляется голубоватый оттенок пихты[7].

В Центральной Европе пихта одноцветная используется как уличное и парковое дерево, а также для создания городских лесонасаждений[68].

Популярность этого хвойного растения в декоративном растениеводстве также связана с высокими, по сравнению с большинством других видов пихт, адаптационными свойствами, устойчивостью к низким и высоким температурам, засухе и избытку влаги, а также воздействию неблагоприятных городских условий[69]. Отмечается низкая чувствительность этого дерева к озону[70].

Культивары

Имеется множество сортов пихты одноцветной, при этом число зарегистрированных названий приближается к сотне. Среди культиваров встречаются как высокие колонновидные или конические формы, так и различные карлики и полукарлики; быстрорастущие и медленнорастущие сорта; разнообразные формы с природным цветом хвои и сорта с серебристым, золотистым, голубым или другим нетрадиционным оттенком[71].

Сорта пихты одноцветной[71]:

  • ‘Albospica’: молодая хвоя белёсая, взрослая — серо-зелёная.
  • angustata: название присвоено Джорджем Судвортом (англ.); имя официально не зарегистрировано.
  • ‘Archer’s Dwarf’: карликовый сорт с плотной, широко-конической кроной; хвоя более голубая, чем у видового растения. Скорость роста в большинстве районов составляет 7,5—10 см в год. В возрасте 10 лет растения достигают высоты 90—180 см. Сорт находится в широкой продаже с 1982 года. Рекомендуется высаживать в солнечных местах[72].
  • ‘Argentea’ (‘Candicans’): сорт с отчётливо серебристой хвоей.
  • ‘Aurea’: молодая хвоя золотисто-жёлтая, затем — серо-зелёная.
  • ‘Biella’ (‘Bella’): карликовый сорт с голубой хвоей из Венгрии.
  • ‘Big Shot #14’: колонновидный, очень компактный сорт, с короткими иглами.
  • ‘Birthday Broom’: крайне медленнорастущий (15—20 см за 10 лет) компактный низкорослый сорт.
  • ‘Blue Cloak’: плакучий колонновидный сорт с опущенными вниз ветвями.
  • ‘Blue Spreader’: сорт с сизой хвоей.
  • ‘Brevifolia’: более короткие иглы.
  • ‘Brady’: метловидный карлик.
  • ‘Bryce Canyon’: нет описания.
  • ‘Butzii’: иглы, направленные вперёд.
  • ‘Candicans’ (‘Argentea’): см. ‘Argentea’.
  • ‘CC Broom’: нет описания.
  • Cibola Group: группа засухоустойчивых сортов.
  • ‘Clarence’: сорт был описан в 1970-х годах, сейчас данных нет.
  • ‘Compacta’ (‘Glauca Compacta’, ‘Violacea Compacta’): компактный карлик с нерегулярной кроной и жёсткой сизоватой хвоей.
  • ‘Conica’: конический медленнорастущий карликовый сорт с голубовато-зелёной хвоей.
  • ‘Creamy’[К 19]: шаровидный карликовый сорт с молодой хвоей кремового цвета.
  • ‘Cush’: нет описания.
  • ‘Domschke’: медленнорастущий (2,5 см в год) карлик.
  • ‘Elkins Weeping’: плакучий сорт с тёмно-зелёной хвоей.
  • ‘Ephriam’: нет описания.
  • ‘Fagerhult’: мощный габитус, повислые ветви, длинная голубая хвоя.
  • ‘Falcata’: сорт с серповидными иглами.
  • ‘Fastigiata’: высокий колонновидный сорт с короткими вертикальными ветвями.
  • ‘Gable’s Weeping’: горизонтальный габитус, немного повислые ветви.
  • ‘Glauca Compacta’ (‘Compacta’): см. ‘Compacta’.
  • ‘Glenmore’: вертикальный конический сорт.
  • ‘Globosa’: шаровидный карлик с очень короткими ветвями.
  • ‘Green Globe’: шаровидный сорт.
  • ‘Heard’: нет описания.
  • ‘Hexe’ (‘Hex’): раскидистый метловидный карликовый сорт с серо-голубой хвоей.
  • ‘Hillier’s Dwarf’: раскидистый карликовый сорт.
  • ‘Holman WB’: нет описания.
  • ‘Husky Pup’: конусовидный сорт с плоской верхушкой и светло-зелёной хвоей.
  • ‘Igel’ (‘Horstmann Igel’): супер-карлик.
  • ‘Imaculate Conception’: сорт с необычной метловидной формой.
  • ‘Kinky’: сорт с неестественной узловатой формой.
  • ‘Kings Gap’: нет описания.
  • ‘Kohouts Fastigiate’: узкий колонновидный сорт.
  • ‘La Veta’: медленнорастущий (2,5 см в год) карлик.
  • ‘Larata’: нет описания.
  • Lincoln Group: группа компактной формы, устойчивая к корневой гнили.
  • longleaf selection: сорт с очень длинными иглами; имя не присвоено.
  • ‘Masonic Broom’: медленнорастущий полукарлик с плоской вершиной.
  • ‘Mike Stearn’ (‘Mike Starn’): шаровидный карлик со светло-голубой хвоей.
  • ‘Mora’: медленнорастущий (1,9 см в год) карлик с голубой хвоей.
  • ‘Morton’: нет описания.
  • nana: неверное имя — один из карликовых сортов.
  • ‘Olcott’: нет описания.
  • ‘Olson’: нет описания.
  • ‘Ostrov Nad Ohri’: шаровидный карликовый сорт со светло-голубой или серо-голубой хвоей из Чехии.
  • ‘Pendens’[К 19]: плакучая форма.
  • ‘Pendula’: плакучая форма (отличается от ‘Pendens’).
  • ‘Perks’: нет описания.
  • ‘Pigglemee’: карликовый медленнорастущий (2,5 см в год) плоско-сферический сорт с очень короткими светло-голубыми, слегка искривлёнными иглами (1,5 см); более раскидистый, чем другие карликовые формы.
  • ‘Pineola Dwarf’: вертикальный полукарлик.
  • ‘Potts Longneedle’: нет описания.
  • ‘Prostrata’: нет описания.
  • ‘Pygmy’: нет описания.
  • ‘Pyramidalis’: нет описания.
  • ‘Recurva’: сорт с искривлёнными сизо-голубыми иглами.
  • Rio Grande Group: более морозоустойчивая группа, чем обычные сорта; иглы — голубовато-зелёные.
  • ‘Saint John’: нет описания.
  • ‘Schramii’: хвоя интенсивного сизо-голубого оттенка; иглы часто принимают V-образную форму на каждой веточке.
  • ‘Scooter’: густой карликовый сорт.
  • select blue: неверное имя — возможно, ряд растений из сортов ‘Violacea’ или ‘Argentea’.
  • ‘Sherwood Blue’: сорт с редкой кроной и серебристыми иглами.
  • ‘Sidekick’: компактный карликовый медленнорастущий (2,5 см в год) сорт.
  • silver blue: неверное имя — возможно, один из сортов с серебристой хвоей.
  • ‘Strange Critter’: нет описания.
  • ‘Strange Dude’: нет описания.
  • ‘Swifts Silver’: серебристая хвоя.
  • ‘Stranwood’: компактный медленнорастущий (2,5 см в год) сорт с короткими голубовато-зелёными иглами.
  • ‘Varia’: название присвоено Джорджем Судвортом (англ.); в настоящий момент данные отсутствуют.
  • ‘Variegata’[К 19]: пёстрая форма; на сей день утрачена.
  • ‘Variegated Spacek’[К 19]: нет описания.
  • Violacea Group[К 20]‘Glauca’: похож на сорт ‘Argentea’.
  • Violacea Group‘Violacea’: лучший культивар из группы: напоминает ель колючую ‘Glauca’.
  • Violacea Group‘Violacea Fastigiata’: предварительное имя; узкий сорт.
  • Violacea Group‘Violaceous Prostrate’: не очень раскидистый сорт.
  • ‘Wattez Prostrate’: раскидистый сорт, близкий к ‘Wattezii’.
  • ‘Wattezii’: молодые побеги светло-жёлтые, затем — кремовые.
  • ‘Waukon’: карлик типа «ведьмина метла».
  • ‘Wintergold’ (‘Winter Gold’): мощный, вертикальный, прямостоящий, конический сорт.
  • ‘Wustemeyer’: плотный сорт с голубой хвоей.

Интродукция пихты одноцветной на территории России

Несмотря на то, что пихта одноцветная достаточно редко встречается в озеленении городов и городском ландшафтном строительстве России, она достаточно широко распространена в российских ботанических коллекциях: в 28 из 63 имеющихся (44,4 %)[73].

Дерево можно встретить в Главном ботаническом саду имени Н. В. Цицина РАН (Москва), Ботаническом саду Московской Медицинской академии им. И. М. Сеченова (Москва)[74], Ботаническом саду Института биологии Коми НЦ УрО РАН (Сыктывкар)[75], дендрарии Крапивенского лесхоза-техникума (Тульская область)[76], Ботаническом саду-институте Марийского государственного технического университета (Йошкар-Ола)[77], Ботаническом саду-институте ДВО РАН (Владивосток)[3] и многих других дендрариях.

В настоящий момент это дерево нередко используется для реализации частных ландшафтных дизайнерских проектов и входит в постоянных товарный перечень многочисленных растительных питомников.

В соответствии с ГОСТ 25769-83, пихта одноцветная входит в «Ассортимент хвойных пород для озеленения населённых мест»[78].

Фотогалерея

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    Штат Аризона, округ Коконино, Гранд-Каньон (North Rim), Виста Энкантада

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    Йосемитский национальный парк

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    Молодые деревья (около 2 м) в Йосемитском национальном парке

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    Соседство пихты одноцветной с сосной Жеффрея (заповедник San Gorgonio)

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    Дерево в культуре: арборетум ботанического сада Университета Айдахо

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    Дерево в культуре: г. Марки, Польша

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    Дерево в культуре: Парк Скарижевски, Варшава, Польша

  •  src=

    Дерево в культуре: Парк Жеромского, Варшава, Польша

Комментарии

  1. Первооткрывателем растения мог стать шотландский ботаник Дэвид Дуглас, изучавший горные районы Северной Америки в 20-х годах XIX века, но он упустил эту возможность.
  2. В различных источниках число видов изменяется от 48 до 55.
  3. Помимо перечисленных видов, на территории России и сопредельных стран, по данным Европейской и Средиземноморской организации по защите и карантину растений, встречаются ещё два вида, идентификация которых не подтверждена: Пихта Гембла (Abies gamblei) и Пихта замечательная (Abies spectabilis).
  4. Последний из опубликованных списков по состоянию на 01.12.09.
  5. Выражение «в культуре» означает выращивание растений в искусственных условиях.
  6. Деревья достигают подобных размеров в возрасте 300 лет и более.
  7. Речь идёт об искусственном выращивании.
  8. Это насекомое уничтожает примерно 1 млн м³ леса в Калифорнии ежегодно.
  9. 1 2 В источнике общая сумма компонентов чуть более 100 %, что, возможно, связано с погрешностью измерения.
  10. Холоцеллюлоза (вся целлюлоза дерева) включает в себя целлюлозу и гемицеллюлозу.
  11. Часть целлюлозы, нерастворимая в концентрированном растворе гидроксида натрия.
  12. Экстракция проводилась кипящим гексаном в течение 10 часов. Выход масла составил 29 %. Анализ состава проводился методом ЯМР (первое число) и газовой хроматографии (число в скобках).
  13. Для ядровой древесины влажностью 98 %.
  14. Приведены для стандартного образца толщиной в 5 см.
  15. Вычисляется как отношение массы абсолютно сухой древесины к массе образца при эквивалентном объёме.
  16. Виды: пихта субальпийская (Abies lasiocarpa), пихта великолепная (Abies magnifica), пихта великая (Abies grandis), пихта благородная (Abies procera), пихта миловидная (Abies amabilis).
  17. По средней длине волокна, пихта одноцветная имеет наивысшие показатели среди всех видов пихт, растущих в США, а также входит в первую десятку северо-американских древесных видов.
  18. В источнике упомянуты следующие индейские племена: keres (western), пайюты, шошоны, [[тева (народ)|]], уошо.
  19. 1 2 3 4 Из группы Abies concolor var. lowiana.
  20. Группа сортов с серебристо-голубой хвоей.

Примечания

  1. Крылов Г. В., Марадудин И. И., Михеев Н. И., Козакова Н. Ф. Пихта. — Агропромиздат. — М., 1986. — 239 с.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Деревья и кустарники СССР. Дикорастущие, культивируемые и перспективные для интродукции / Под ред. д-ра биол. наук, проф. С. Я. Соколова и чл.-корр. АН СССР Б. К. Шишкина. — М., Л.: Издательство Академии наук СССР, 1949. — Т. 1 (Голосеменные). — С. 82—84.
  3. 1 2 Михалин М. В., Попков Б. В., Прилуцкий А. Н. Устойчивость некоторых хвойных в условиях юга Приморья и её изменение под влиянием стимуляторов роста // Бюллетень Ботанического сада института ДВО РАН. — 2008. — № 2. — С. 45—51.
  4. 1 2 Sakai A., Okada S. Freezing Resistance of Conifers (англ.) // Silvae Genetica. — 1971. — Vol. 20, no. 3. — P. 91—97.
  5. Cultivated plants of southern Africa: botanical names, common names, origins, literature / National Botanical Institute (South Africa). — Johannesburg: Jacana Education, 2002. — P. 17. — ISBN 1-919931-17-1.
  6. Spencer R. Horticultural Flora of South-eastern Australia: Ferns, conifers & their allies. — Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd, 1995. — Vol. 1. — P. 221. — ISBN 0-86840-206-0.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Пихта одноцветная (неопр.). Энциклопедия декоративных садовых растений. Проверено 4 декабря 2009. Архивировано 20 августа 2011 года.
  8. Musgrave T., Gardner Ch., Musgrave W. The Plant Hunters. — Orion Publishing Group. — P. 147. — ISBN 1-8418800-1-9.
  9. 1 2 Gordon G. The pinetum: being a synopsis of all the coniferous plants at present known, with descriptions, history, and synonymes, and comprising nearly one hundred new kinds / Assisted by Glendinning R. — London: H. G. Bohn, 1858. — P. 155.
  10. 1 2 Abies concolor. Species details (англ.). Conifer database. Catalogue of Life: 2009 Annual Checklist. Проверено 1 декабря 2009. Архивировано 20 августа 2011 года.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 White Fir An American Wood (англ.) (pdf). Forest Service. United States Department of Agriculture. Проверено 3 декабря 2009. Архивировано 20 августа 2011 года.
  12. Коропачинский И. Ю. Род Пихта — Abies Mill. // Сосудистые растения советского Дальнего Востока : Плауновидные, Хвощевидные, Папоротниковидные, Голосеменные, Покрытосеменные (Цветковые) : в 8 т. / отв. ред. С. С. Харкевич. — Л. : Наука, 1989. — Т. 4 / ред. тома А. Е. Кожевников. — С. 9—12. — 380 с. — 1500 экз.ISBN 5-02-026590-X. — ISBN 5-02-026577-2 (т. 4).
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Abies concolor (англ.) (недоступная ссылка). Pinaceae. The Gymnosperm Database. Проверено 3 декабря 2009. Архивировано 26 февраля 2006 года.
  14. Chemical Utilization of Western Woods: White Fir / Report No. C-4. — Corvallis: Oregon Forest Research Center, 1961. — 17 p.
  15. White Fir (Abies concolor) (англ.). Nearctica.com (The Natural History of North America). Проверено 7 декабря 2009. Архивировано 8 марта 2002 года.
  16. Лантратова А. С. Деревья и кустарники Карелии: Определитель. — Петрозаводск: Карелия, 1991. — С. 48. — ISBN 5-7545-0369-5.
  17. Abies concolor (Gordon & Glendinning) Hildebrand 1861 (англ.). Botany online. University of Hamburg. Department of Biology in the MIN-Faculty. Проверено 22 декабря 2009. Архивировано 20 августа 2011 года.
  18. 1 2 Abies concolor (англ.). Flora of North America, Vol. 2. eFloras.org. Архивировано 20 августа 2011 года.
  19. Van Dersal W. R. Native Woody Plants of the United States. — reprinted from 1939. — Read Books, 2007. — P. 36. — ISBN 9781406740035.
  20. Zavarin E., Snajberk K., Fisher J. Geographic variability of monoterpenes from cortex of Abies concolor (англ.) // Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. — 1975. — Vol. 3, no. 4. — P. 191—203.
  21. 1 2 3 4 5 Abies concolor (англ.). Fire Effects Information System. US Forest Service. Проверено 3 декабря 2009. Архивировано 20 августа 2011 года.
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