Associated Forest Cover
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Grand fir is either a seral or climax species in different forest types
within its range. On moist sites it grows rapidly enough to compete with
other seral species in the dominant overstory. On dry sites it becomes a
shade-tolerant understory and eventually assumes dominance as climax
conditions are approached.
Grand fir is represented in 17 forest cover types of western North
America: it is the predominant species in only one, Grand Fir (Society of
American Foresters Type 213) (26). It is a major component of six other
cover types: Western Larch (Type 212), Western White Pine (Type 215),
Interior Douglas-Fir (Type 210), Western Hemlock (Type 224), Western
Redcedar (Type 228), and Western Redcedar-Western Hemlock (Type 227).
Grand fir appears sporadically in 10 other cover types.
In northern Idaho, grand fir is the major climax tree species in seven
habitat types and is an important seral tree in the Thuja plicata,
Tsuga heterophylla, and Abies lasciocarpa series of habitat
types (5). The Montana forest ecological classification recognizes an Abies
grandis series of three habitat types in which grand fir is the major
climax tree (23). It is also a minor climax or seral tree in four other
types in Montana. In central Idaho, Steele and others (28) described an
Abies grandis series that includes nine habitat types and five
phases in which grand fir is the climax tree.
The Abies grandis zone is the most extensive midslope forest
zone in the Cascade Range of Oregon and southern Washington and the Blue
Mountains of eastern Oregon. Grand fir is the climax tree species in 12
plant associations (15,18). It is also an important component of the mixed
conifer communities in the Willamette Valley and Siskiyou Mountains of
Oregon (16). In addition, grand fir grows sporadically in the Tsuga
heterophylla, Picea sitchensis, and Abies amabilis zones in
the coastal forests of Washington and Oregon (11).
Grand fir sometimes grows in pure stands but is much more common in
mixed coniferous and hardwood forests. In forests east of the Cascade
crest, it is associated with western white pine (Pinus monticola),
western larch (Larix occidentalis), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii), western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), western
redcedar (Thuja plicata), lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta),
ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), and in certain areas,
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), subalpine fir (Abies
lasiocarpa), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), Pacific
yew (Taxus brevifolia), white fir (Abies concolor), incense-cedar
(Libocedrus decurrens), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), Shasta
red fir (Abies magnifica var. shastensis), and Oregon
white oak (Quercus garryana).
Associates of grand fir in northwestern Oregon, western Washington, and
southwestern British Columbia include Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis),
Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis), and Port-Orford-cedar
(Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), in addition to western redcedar,
western hemlock, western larch, and Douglas-fir. It also is associated
with these coast hardwoods: bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum), Oregon
ash (Fraxinus latifolia), red alder (Alnus rubra), black
cottonwood, and Oregon white oak.
In southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, at the southern
limits of the range, grand fir is found with redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens), and at higher elevations with Shasta red fir, white
fir, noble fir (Abies procera), subalpine fir, and western white
pine.
Shrubs commonly associated with grand fir include pachistima (Pachistima
myrsinites), bristly black currant (Ribes lacustre), Saskatoon
serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia), Rocky Mountain maple (Acer
glabrum), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), birchleaf spirea (Spiraea
betulifolia), huckleberry (Vaccinium spp.), Utah honeysuckle
(Lonicera utahensis), mallow ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus),
common snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus), baldhip rose (Rosa
gymnocarpa), princes-pine (Chimaphila spp.), Spalding
rose (Rosa nutkana var. hispida), oceanspray (Holodiscus
discolor), creeping hollygrape (Berberis repens), willow (Salix
spp.), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), rustyleaf
menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea), and pyrola (Pyrola spp.).
Herbaceous species commonly found in various associations with grand fir
include queenscup (Clintonia uniflora), false solomons-seal (Smilacina
stellata), goldthread (Coptis occidentalis), Pacific trillium
(Trillium ovatum), sweetscented bedstraw (Galium triflorum),
pathfinder (trailplant) (Adenocaulon bicolor), wildginger (Asarum
caudatum), Piper anemone (Anemone piperi), violet (Viola
spp.), sandwort (Arenaria macrophylla), heartleaf
arnica (Arnica cordifolia), strawberry Fragaria spp.),
rattlesnake plantain (Goodyera oblongifolia), western
meadowrue (Thalictrum occidentale), coolwort (Tiarella spp.),
fairybells (Disporum oreganum), white hawkweed (Hieracium
albiflorum), and sweetroot (Osmorhiza spp.). Graminoids
frequently associated with grand fir are Columbia brome (Bromus
vulgaris), pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), western fescue
(Festuca occidentalis), and sedge (Carex spp.). Additional
species are associated with grand fir in the coastal region, where it
grows with western hemlock, coastal Douglas-fir, Sitka spruce, and
redwood.
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Climate
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Grand fir is found on a wide variety of sites. Average annual
precipitation in its territory ranges from 510 to more than 2540 mm (20 to
100 in) in western Washington and on Vancouver Island. Annual
precipitation in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon averages 360 to 990
mm (14 to 39 in). In northern Idaho, average annual precipitation is 510
to 1270 mm (20 to 50 in). Most of this precipitation occurs during winter.
Generally 15 to 25 percent of the annual precipitation occurs during the
growing season, May through August. On Vancouver Island, where average
annual precipitation ranges from 680 to 2820 mm (27 to 111 in), only 50 to
130 mm (2 to 5 in) of rain falls during June, July, and August. Average
annual snowfall ranges from a few centimeters on some coastal sites to
more than 1270 cm (500 in) in the mountains of the interior (9).
Average annual temperatures range from 6° to 10° C (43°
to 50° F); the average growing season temperature is 14° to 19°
C (57° to 66° F). The frost-free season varies, ranging from
about 60 to more than 250 days, and is very irregular from year to year.
Frosts may occur in any month in the interior. The average growing season
ranges from only 100 to 140 days in northern Idaho, 185 days on the
Olympic Peninsula in western Washington, and 250 or more days in northern
California (9).
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Damaging Agents
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During the period of stand development from
establishment to maturity, several factors influence stand growth and
yield. Grand fir is rated medium in fire resistance among species of the
western white pine type; it is less resistant than thick-barked western
larch, ponderosa pine, and Douglas-fir but more resistant than subalpine
fir, western hemlock, and Engelmann spruce. Fire resistance is influenced
by habitat. For example, in moist creek bottoms grand fir succumbs rapidly
to ground fires, but on dry hillsides it is more resistant, largely
because of its deeper root system and thicker bark. The needles are quite
resistant to cold during the severest part of the winter. Grand fir leaves
have been subjected to temperatures of -55° C (-67° F) without
damage. Sudden extreme drops of temperature in the fall occasionally
damage needles, but seldom are they fatal. Frost cracks and lightning
scars appear more frequently on grand fir, however, than on its associates
in the Inland Empire. The cracks cause little direct mortality but
contribute to the spread of infection by decay fungi. Often small patches
of trees are uprooted or broken by the accumulation of snow in the crowns
of dense immature stands in the Inland Empire (9). In England young grand
firs from Vancouver Island and western Washington are reportedly
susceptible to late spring frost and drought crack (2).
Susceptibility to heart rot and decay is one of the more important
factors in the management of grand fir. Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium
tinctorium) is the most destructive fungus in forests east of the
Cascade crest (17). In the Blue Mountains of Oregon and Washington, decay
was reported responsible for losses of 14 percent of the gross
merchantable cubic-foot volume and 33 percent of the board-foot volume in
sawtimber-size grand fir trees (1). Fungi enter the tree through small
shade-killed branchlets in the lower crown. After closure of the branchlet
stub, infections become dormant. Years later the infections are
reactivated when mechanical injuries allow air to enter the heartwood
where the dormant infections are located (7). Therefore, centers of decay
are closely related to logging scars, frost cracks, broken tops, and other
mechanical injuries (21).
Indian paint fungus is rare in grand fir west of the Cascade crest where
rapid growth rates close branch stubs quickly (7). Armillaria spp.
and Phellinus weiri are the two most important root rot fungi.
Poria subacida and Heterobasidion annosum also attack
grand fir (17).
Numerous insects attack grand fir. The western spruce budworm (Choristoneura
occidentalis) and Douglas-fir tussock moth (Orgyia pseudotsugata)
have caused widespread defoliation, top kill, and mortality. The
western balsam bark beetle (Dryocoetes confusus) and the fir
engraver (Scolytus
ventralis) are the principal bark beetles attacking grand fir.
The fir cone moth (Barbara spp.), fir cone maggots (Earomyia
spp.), and several seed chalcids destroy large numbers of
grand fir cones and seeds. The balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae),
often called "gout disease of fir," has destroyed grand fir
in western Oregon and Washington and is a serious threat in southwestern
British Columbia (12).
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Flowering and Fruiting
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Grand fir trees are monoecious; male and
female flowers are borne in clusters on branchlets of the previous
season's growth in different parts of the same tree. Female flowers,
producing cones and seeds, are short, spherical to cylindrical, and stand
singly and erect on the uppermost part of the crown. Male flowers,
pollen-bearing only, are ovoid or cylindrical and hang singly from the
lower side of branches below the female flowers. This arrangement favors
cross-fertilization. The cones mature in one season. Time of flowering may
vary over several months, depending on temperatures during the weeks
preceding flowering. Flowering occurs from late March to mid-May at lower
elevations of most coastal locations, and in June at the higher elevations
of the inland locations. The cones, mostly yellowish-green and
occasionally greenish-purple, ripen from August to September of the same
year, and seeds are dispersed approximately 1 month later (32).
Extreme frosts may occasionally inhibit normal cone and seed
development. Several species of insects feed on the buds, conelets, and
seeds of grand fir, sometimes destroying 10 to 25 percent of the year's
seed crop (9).
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Genetics
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Population Differences
There are no recognized varieties of grand fir, although a green
coastal form and gray interior form are often recognized. Five fairly
distinct climatic forms of grand fir have been identified. The differences
are mainly physiological and ecological (9). Provenance trials with grand
fir in Europe have resulted in ranking U.S. seed origins. Seed sources
west of the Cascade crest are preferred for planting in England and the
lowland sites in Europe (20). Significant differences in height growth
between trees from sources east and west of the Cascade crest have been
reported but average growth of westside and interior seedlings is
generally about the same (29). Most of the genetic variation available for
tree improvement appears to be among stands but genetic gains can also be
made by selecting individuals within stands.
Hybrids
Grand fir crosses with both the concolor and lowiana varieties
of white fir. Several studies have shown hybridization and introgression
between grand fir and white fir in a broad zone extending from the Klamath
Mountains of northern California through southwestern Oregon and through
the Oregon Cascade Range into northeastern Oregon and west-central Idaho
(30). Grand fir has been crossed with several European and Asiatic species
(19). Natural hybrids have been reported between grand fir and subalpine
fir in northern Idaho (6).
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Growth and Yield
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Longevity of grand fir is intermediate among
true firs; trees 250 years old are common and occasional trees may be more
than 300 years old. On optimum sites in the coastal lowlands of
Washington, mature grand firs reach heights of 43 to 61 m (140 to 200 ft)
at 51 to 102 cm (20 to 40 in) d.b.h.; occasionally they reach 76 m (250
ft) in height and 152 cm (60 in) in d.b.h. (11). Grand fir in the redwood
forests of California reaches d.b.h. and heights as great as those
attained in the coast Douglas-fir region. In northern Idaho grand fir
normally grows to 35 to 46 m (115 to 151 ft) in height at 64 to 102 cm (25
to 40 in) in d.b.h. On the pumice soils of eastern Oregon it attains
height of 30 to 40 m (98 to 131 ft) with d.b.h. of 51 to 91 cm (20 to 36
in). On exposed ridges of the Inland Empire, heights of 15 to 21 m (49 to
69 ft) and d.b.h. of 30 to 36 cm (12 to 14 in) are common (9).
The rapid early height growth nearly equals that of Douglas-fir on the
Pacific coast and western white pine in Idaho. On Vancouver Island and
western Washington sites, growth of 79 to 89 cm (31 to 35 in) per year was
reported. Trees 43 m (141 ft) tall at 50 years of age have been measured.
In Idaho early height growth of 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) on average sites
and 30 to 36 cm (12 to 14 in) on optimum sites has been reported. In the
dry pumice soils of eastern Oregon, average juvenile height growth up to
13 cm (5 in) per year has been reported. On these dry sites good height
growth is delayed until the taproots reach ground water. At some time in
the third decade, height growth receives considerable impetus and annual
height growths of 51 to 89 cm (20 to 35 in) or more are common (9).
Among pole-size trees, growth is nearly equal to the more
shade-intolerant western white pine and Douglas-fir with which it is
commonly associated. Grand fir commonly outgrows the more tolerant western
hemlock and western redcedar.
Grand fir has been planted successfully in many European countries,
where it is considered one of the most potentially productive species (2).
In England, growth of grand fir plantations was compared with that of
neighboring plantations of other commonly planted species, and the rate of
growth of grand fir at 40 years of age frequently equaled or exceeded that
of other species such as Sitka spruce, Norway spruce (Picea abies),
and Douglas-fir (2).
Grand fir seldom grows in pure stands except in areas of the Clearwater
River drainage of north-central Idaho. Therefore, estimates of yields have
value mainly in relation to mixed stands. Grand fir ranks among the most
productive species in all the associations in which it grows. East of the
Cascade crest in Oregon and Washington, yields of grand or white fir
stands at age 100 years range from 476 to 1330 m³ /ha (6,800 to
19,000 ft³/acre) (4). In northern Idaho, where grand fir grows with
western white pine, predicted yields of normal stands range from 470 to
1078 m/ha (6,720 to 15,400 W/acre) at age 100 (14). Estimates of mean
annual growth range from 8 to 13 m³/ha (114 to 186 ft³/acre) in
Idaho (27) and 6 to 10 m³/ha (86 to 143 ft³/acre) in Montana
(23). On the more fertile soils of England, growth rates of 18 to 20 m³/ha
(257 to 286 ft³/acre) to age 40 have been reported (2).
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Reaction to Competition
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Grand fir is classed as shade-tolerant
in all associations in which it occurs. In the Willamette Valley of
Oregon, it is the climax type following Douglas-fir and Oregon white oak.
In the Inland Empire it is more tolerant than any of its associates except
western redcedar and western hemlock. It is the climax type on sites too
dry for redcedar or hemlock. In coastal British Columbia, grand fir is
similar to Sitka spruce in tolerance; that is, it is slightly more
tolerant than Douglas-fir. It is the least shade-tolerant of the true firs
in British Columbia and is much less tolerant than western hemlock,
western redcedar, or Pacific silver fir. Grand fir is a versatile species
that, although quite tolerant, has a growth rate nearly equal to that of
western white pine.
Grand fir is a dominant climax species in some habitat types and a
long-lived seral species in other types. It usually grows in mixed-species
stands where either even-aged or uneven-aged silviculture is practiced. In
the zone of genetic intergrade between grand and white fir, it is not
possible to separate the two species and their hybrids visually.
Silvicultural prescriptions and treatments are applied as if they were one
species. Where grand fir is desired under even-aged management,
shelterwood cuttings are preferred because regeneration and early growth
are best in partial shade. It also regenerates satisfactorily on most
sites, however, following seed tree or clearcutting (3,24). Following
seedling establishment, the overstory should be removed to encourage rapid
growth in height and diameter.
Under uneven-aged management, grand fir regenerates adequately and
commonly outgrows the more tolerant western hemlock and western redcedar
as an understory tree. Certain classes of understory grand fir saplings
respond positively to release while others respond negatively (8,25).
Pole-size and larger grand firs respond well to release by thinning and
selection cuttings if the crowns are vigorous (13).
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Rooting Habit
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The grand fir root system is intermediate in
development among its associated tree species. The anchoring taproot does
not grow as rapidly nor as deeply as dry site associates such as ponderosa
pine, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine, but it grows faster and deeper than
wet site species such as western hemlock, western redcedar, and Engelmann
spruce. Seedling roots penetrate the soil rapidly enough in full sunlight
to survive drought conditions in duff and surface soil. Grand fir produces
roots under shaded conditions, enabling it to survive in the understory.
The adaptable root system contributes to the growth of grand fir over a
wide range of sites and climatic conditions. A relatively deep taproot
enables grand fir to survive and grow well on rather dry soils and exposed
ridges. On moist sites, the taproot is largely replaced by more shallow
lateral roots (9).
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Seed Production and Dissemination
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Seed production begins at
about 20 years of age and increases with age, diameter, and vigor of the
tree. Eight-year observations of permanent sample plots in Idaho show that
grand fir produced the fewest seeds of the species associated with western
white pine. Grand fir produced no good crops and only two fair crops,
while western white pine produced two good crops and three fair crops.
During the same 8-year period, western hemlock produced five good crops
and two fair crops (9). In the coastal forests of Washington, grand fir
ranked higher than western white pine and intermediate among upper slope
species in number of seeds produced per tree (22). Other sources place the
interval between good seed crops at 2 to 3 years (10,32).
In the Inland Empire, a good cone crop for grand fir is considered to be
more than 40 cones per tree. A fair crop is 21 to 40 cones per tree. Grand
fir seeds caught annually in seed traps on two sample plots averaged
42,000/ha (17,000 acre) on the Kaniksu National Forest and 58,100/ha
(23,500 acre) on the Coeur d'Alene National Forest. Eight-year
observations of seed traps under a 300-year-old stand on the Priest River
Experimental Forest yielded 31,600 grand fir seeds per hectare (12,800
acre) annually (9). The yield of cleaned seeds ranges from 26,200 to
63,100/kg (11,900 to 28,700/lb) and averages 40,500/kg (18,400/lb) (32).
When the cones are ripe, the scales fall away and release the
large-winged seeds, leaving only the central spike. Seeds are dispersed by
the wind and rodents. Most of the seeds are disseminated in the early
fall, about 5 percent falling before September 1 and 80 percent falling
before the end of October. Seeds sufficient to produce adequate
reproduction may be distributed up to 120 m (400 ft) from the parent tree,
but the average distance is about 45 to 60 m (150 to 200 ft). Seeds in the
duff remain viable through only one overwinter period (9).
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Seedling Development
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Grand fir seeds germinate in the spring
following one overwinter period on the ground. In natural stands,
germination is quite variable but is seldom greater than 50 percent
because of embryo dormancy, insect infestation, and the perishable nature
of the seeds. Seeds are often so heavily infested with insects that an
entire crop may be classed as a failure (9).
Stratification under cool, moist conditions speeds germination. Grand
fir seeds are typically stratified at 1° to 5° C (34° to 41°
F) for 14 to 42 days before nursery sowing in the spring. Results of
greenhouse germination tests of grand fir seeds are highly variable. In
three sandflat germination tests in the northern Rockies, grand fir had
the lowest germination percentage among major associates of the western
white pine type (9). Average percentages were grand fir, 12; western
larch, 30; Douglas-fir, 41; western white pine, 44; western hemlock, 65;
and western redcedar, 73. As with other true firs, germination is epigeal.
In reported tests, germinative capacity ranged from 0 to 93 percent and
averaged 50 percent (32). The variability and average grand fir
germination are about average for the true firs.
Grand fir seed germination begins in late April or early May on
exposed sites and a month later on protected sites where snow lingers
late. It is practically completed by July 1 on exposed sites and by August
15 on protected sites. Germination is best on mineral soil, but on
seed-tree cuttings, grand fir germinates nearly as well on duff as on any
other surface (9).
Studies of seedling survival indicate that more than 30 percent of grand
fir seedlings die in the first season, and an additional 10 percent die in
the second season. Losses drop off rapidly after the first 2 years, and
seedlings 3 years old are fairly well established (9,24). Studies of
mortality during the critical first year indicate that early season losses
are due principally to biotic agents, especially damping-off fungi.
Fungi-caused mortality is very irregular, however. Later in the season as
the soil begins to dry and temperatures rise, mortality is due principally
to heat from insolation and drought. Surface-soil temperatures are less
important under shade or on sheltered sites, and under dense shade or on
north slopes high temperatures do not cause death. Grand fir is relatively
resistant to heat injury; it is equal to western white pine and
Douglas-fir and more resistant than western larch, western hemlock, and
western redcedar. Grand fir seedlings are relatively resistant to drought
on areas exposed to full sun because deep initial root penetration
protects them from drying of the surface soil. On heavily shaded, cool
areas, drought is the most important physical cause of seedling mortality
because initial root penetration is slow; even shallow drying of the
surface soil may cause drought mortality despite ample soil moisture at
deeper levels (9).
Initial survival and growth of grand fir are favored by a moderate
overwood shade. Under full sun it is largely subordinate to faster
growing, shade-intolerant species. Under partial overwood shade, grand fir
is aggressive enough to form a dominant part of the reproduction. After 20
to 30 years, it makes most rapid growth in the open (9).
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Soils and Topography
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Grand fir seems to grow equally well on soils derived from a variety of
parent materials, including sandstone, weathered lava (rock), or granite
and gneiss. In the Pacific coast region and in the Willamette Valley of
Oregon it grows most abundantly on deep, rich alluvial soils along streams
and valley bottoms and on moist soils provided with seepage. In the inland
regions it grows best on rich mineral soils of the valley bottoms, but it
also grows well on shallow, exposed soils of mountain ridges and pure
pumice soils in central and eastern Oregon, provided moisture is adequate
(9). Most of the soils that support grand fir have been classified as
Spodosols.
Grand fir grows on Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland of British
Columbia at elevations between sea level and 305 m (1,000 ft). In the
southern interior of British Columbia it grows only in the moist valleys
of such rivers as the Kootenay, Columbia, and Okanogan and their
tributaries. Grand fir is predominantly a lowland species in western
Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia. In western Washington it grows
in valleys and stream bottoms having high ground-water levels. Elevations
of these sites are usually between 180 and 305 m (590 and 1,000 ft). At
elevations above 460 m (1,510 ft), grand fir is replaced by Pacific
silver fir (Abies amabilis). Grand fir is found in western Oregon
and in the lowlands of all the river regions, and in the lower west
Cascades to an elevation of 915 m (3,000 ft). In northern California it
grows from near sea level to about 1525 m (5,000 ft) (9).
In the eastern Cascades of Washington, 915 to 1220 m (3,000 to 4,000
ft) is the upper altitude limit for grand fir, while in the eastern
Cascades of Oregon it grows at 1525 m (5,000 ft). In the Inland Empire,
including the Blue Mountains of Oregon, it is found as high as 1830 m
(6,000 ft) and as low as 460 m (1,500 ft), but usually between 610 and
1525 m (2,000 and 5,000 ft). In the Nez Perce region of central Idaho, it
grows well at altitudes of 1220 to 1675 m (4,000 to 5,500 ft) (9).
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Special Uses
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The soft white wood of grand fir is a valued source of pulpwood. The
wood also is commercially valuable as timber even though it is weaker and
more prone to decay than many other species. The luxuriant foliage,
symmetry, and deep green shiny color make grand fir one of the preferred
species of Christmas trees grown in the Northwest. The attractive
appearance of grand fir makes it valuable in recreation areas and urban
plantings.
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Vegetative Reproduction
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No information is currently available.
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Distribution
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Grand fir grows in the stream bottoms, valleys, and mountain slopes of
northwestern United States and southern British Columbia. Its wide
geographical distribution is from latitude 51° to 39° N. and
from longitude 125° to 114° W. In the Pacific coast region it
grows in southern British Columbia mainly on the lee side of Vancouver
Island and the adjacent mainland, in the interior valleys and lowlands of
western Washington and Oregon, and in northwestern California as far south
as Sonoma County. The range in the continental interior extends from the
Okanogan and Kootenay Lakes in southern British Columbia south through
eastern Washington, northern Idaho, western Montana west of the
Continental Divide, and northeastern Oregon. The best commercial stands of
grand fir are in the Nez Perce and Clearwater regions of northern Idaho
(9).
- The native range of grand fir.
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Brief Summary
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Pinaceae -- Pine family
Marvin W. Foiles, Russel T. Graham, and David F. Olson, Jr.
Grand fir (Abies grandis), also called lowland white fir, balsam
fir, or yellow fir, is a rapid-growing tree that reaches its largest size
in the rain forest of the Olympic Peninsula of Washington. One tree in
that area measures 200 cm (78.9 in) in d.b.h., 70.4 m (231 ft) tall, and
has a crown spread of 14 m (46 ft). The species also has historic
significance. The famous Barlow Road snub-trees on the south side of Mount
Hood in Oregon were grand firs. They were used by early settlers to
control the rate of descent of their covered wagons on a particularly
steep slope in their trek from east to west. Some of the rope-burned trees
are still standing after 150 years.
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